The Formulation of 

Standards of Educational 
Achievement for a State 



d.^ 



j-^n % ^ ^ 



BY 



WILLIS E. JOHNSON 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 

JUNE, 1919 



I 



THE FORMULATION 
OF 

Standards of Educational 
Achievement for a State 



BY 
WILLIS E. JOHNSON 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 

JUNE, 1919 



i:^ ^VVlUv.>-tcUC'C^. 



,<i' 



Contents ^ o^ 



Page 

I. Introdiuction 1 

II. The Problem 2 

III. The Outcomes 2 

1. A means of raising standairds. 

2. The improvement of meithods of instruction. 

3. A better time distribution. 

4. A check on teacher efficiency. 

5. Types and modes of distribution and variability. 

6. Stimulus to interest. 

IV. Other Studies of a Similar Nature 4 

1. Origin of standardized tests. 

2. The first school survey. 

3. Types of survey. 

4. Indiana survey. 

a. Method of procedurie. 
lb. Results. 

5. Oither studies. 

6. General method usied in this study. 

v. Method of Procedure 6 

1. Derivation of standard scales and tests. 

2. Securing of data. 

3. Tabulating and graphing of data. 

4. Statistical methods iawoived. 

a. Median. 

b. Variability. 

c. Correlation. 

VI. Ftormntetion ol Standardsi S 

1. Subjects chosen. 

2. The tests! used. 

3. The invitation to oo-operate. 

4. Bureau of Educational Research. 

a. Foreword. 

b. Scale use illustrated. 

1. Handwriting experiment, 
a. Results. 

c. Use of standard tests. 

d. Significant situations revealed. 

1. Studies in Arithmetic. 

2. Studies in Handwriting. 

3. Studies in Spelling. 

4. Studies in Reading. 

e. Dates for giving tests. 

f. Special aid. 

g. Additional tests. 

h. Correspondence invited. 
i. Giving of the tests. 
j. Directions for giving tests. 
k. Testing for accuracy. 
1. Res^llting tahles. 

13. ©i . 



o 

■J 



VII. Report on Handwriting 25 

1. Fall tests. 

2. Median explained. 

3. Quartile range. 

4. Percentage of variability. 
B. Distribution. 

6. Spring tests. 

7. Comments. 

a. Work as a whole, 

b. Range of variability. 

c. Grade diagnosis. 

d. Influence of suggestion. 

e. Recommendations. 

f. Graph. 

g. Table — Quality, 
h. Table— Speed. 

VIII. Report on Spelling 33 

1. The test. 

2. Comments and recommendations. 

a. Class and city diagnosis. 

3. Table. 

4. Graphs. 

a. 50-word list. 

b. Grades by separate lists. 

c. Fall and spring distribution. 

d. Fall and spring scores by cities. 

IX. Report on Reading 40 

1. Spring tests. 

2. Comments and recommendations. 

a. Class diagnosis. 

b. Range. 

c. Conclusions. 

d. Significance of the papers. 

3. Graph — ^state by grades. 

4. Table. 

5. Graph — fall and spring scores by cities. 

X. Report on Arithmetic 45 

1. Tests used. 

2. Comments and recommendations. 

a. Comparison with Kansas and Indiana. 

b. State as a whole-^addition. 
3 Graphs. 

a. Accuracy in the four fundamentals. 

b. Speed in Addition and Subtraction. 

c. Speed in Multiplication and Division. 
4. Tables. 

a,. Addition, speed and accuracy. 

b. Subtraction, speed and accuracy. 

c. Multiplication speed and accuracy. 

d. Division, speed and accuracy. 

Summary of South Dakota Standards 56 

XI. Conclusions and Recommendations 57 

XII. Correlations 58 

XIII. Bibliography 66 



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I. INTRODUCTION. 

The present study was undertaken solely as an efifort to co- 
operate with the more progressive superintendents and principals 
in South Dakota cities and towns for the better understanding 
of school conditions with a view to bettering them. From its 
inception the writer had no thought of receiving scholastic recog- 
nition for the study and research. Indeed, this idea came only 
after the work was well under way and most of the first series of 
tests had been given. 

In standard scales and tests the educator of today has instru- 
ments for diagnosing educational situations. By using some of 
the best understood and most thoroughly standardized of these 
tests the writer wished to find answers to these four questions: 

1. How well can the children in the elementary 
grades of the city and town schools of South Dakota 
read? 

2. How rapidly and accurately do these children 
perform the four fundamental operations in arithmetic? 

3. How proficient are they in spelling? 

4. How well can they write and what is the speed 
at which they write ? 

These questions have been answered with a very high degree 
of accuracy. Innumerable other problems connect themselves 
with the solution of those enumerated as will appear in the fol- 
lowing pages. Numerous comparisons are possible now that 
these fundamental outcomes are known. 

While the writer takes some pride in the completion of the 
present task he is overwhelmed with a keen realization of the 
fact that the real problem of betterment is still for the future. He 
recognizes that this study is only a small beginning on a small 
area of the illimitable school field. It is but the beginning but it 
is a beginning. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge a deep debt of gratitude to 
Dean Lotus D. Coffman, of the University of Minnesota, for 
pointing out not only methods for solving this big and challeng- 
ing problem but also for the suggestion that a close analysis of 
the processes involved would constitute a worthy contribution 
to the science of education. It has been the author's privilege 
to have had the personal counsel of the authors of the standard 
tests and scales used, Dr. M. E. Haggerty, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres 

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and Mr. S. A. Courtis, and to them he feels personally grateful. 
To Professor Van Wagenen, of the College of Education, Uni- 
versity of Minnesota, and to Professor C. C. Stech and Pro- 
fessor Harry N. Fitch, of the department of education of the 
Northern Normal and Industrial School, the author is indebted 
for many valuable suggestionfj to details in plan and method. 
The writer also wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mrs. 
Leroy Crawford, Miss Ivy Husband, Mr. Clayton Schmidt and 
to a score or more upper class students of the Northern Normal 
and Industrial School for many hours spent in assisting in the 
countless scorings and computations which this undertaking 
has involved. While the co-operating superintendents and prin- 
cipals and their hundreds of teachers may be thought of as the 
prime beneficiaries of this study, without their hearty co-opera- 
tion the project would have been impossible. 

II. THE PROBLEM. 

The problem, in brief, is to ascertain what standards of edu- 
cational accomplishment actually obtain in the elementary grades 
of town and city schools of South Dakota. This problem involves 
a study of the methods of obtaining reliable data and a carefully 
worked out plan of obtaining the data. This, in turn, is based 
upon problems of statistical methods and of standardized educa- 
tional tests and measurements. Finally come the problems of 
the organization of the data in tabulated, comparative and 
graphic forms and the testing and demonstration of these data 
for reliability. Reliable conclusions may then safely be derived 
and confidently submitted to the teachers of the state. These 
measures of present efficiency will constitute temporary goals 
of achievement for schools that fall short of the median standards 
and points for advance or transfer of emphasis for the schools 
that are above the standard. 

III. THE OUTCOMES. 

What may we expect from a research of this kind? "What's 
the use?" These omnipresent questions need to be answered in 
definite terms. The following are set as objectives and outcomes 
to be realized through this study. 

1. A means of raising standards. Definite knowledge of 

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actual conditions must precede intelligently directed progress. 
There can be no such thing- in education as the complete realiza- 
tion of aims ; a new goal is always projected from the one already 
attained. To learn in definite, objective terms what attainments 
have been made is to obtain a vantage ground for projecting 
plans for further progress. This is particularly true when it is 
discovered that the pupils are short of the attainment of the 
majority in the same grades. 

2. The improvement of methods of instruction. The ultra 
conservative criticise modern educational measurements on the 
ground that they are simply diagnostic ; they are not prescriptive ; 
they reveal the disease but not the remedy. There is a measure 
of truth in this criticism. Prescription, however, is based upon 
diagnosis. Definite knowledge of the existing pathology is the 
sine qua non for intelligently directed remedy. To know where 
weakness exists is to knoAv where to place emphasis. In most 
cases a remedy is immediately suggested. 

3. A better time distribution. The appraisal of attainments 
and a knowledge of their distribution suggests immediately 
points for maximal and minimal stress. A most cursory glance at 
comparative standards reveals the fact that some elements of 
attainment are being sacrificed at the expense of more desirable 
ones. The tables showing the time devoted to a subject in a 
given school are very significant, indeed. 

4. A check on teacher efficiency. This is a mediate out- 
come. The present study is of a confidential nature and protects 
the inefficient school and inefficient teacher from public criticism. 
The data, however, are at hand for such an appraisement and the 
way is pointed out for an ultimate check on teacher efficiency. 

5. The types and modes of distribution and variability. 
Under this head is grouped a number of outcomes of far-reaching 
significance. Several kinds of arithmetical abilities are patently 
revealed in the simple Courtis tests. There are several kinds of 
spelling abilities and reading abilities. Even the objective out- 
comes of handwriting reveal several kinds of attainments, one 
pupil's handwriting showing legibility but not uniformity or 
beauty, another showing a marked degree of beauty with a low 
degree of legibility, a third sacrificing quality for speed, etc. The 
high percentage of variability in attainments in certain schools 
suggests a searching for the causes in faulty gradation, irregu- 

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larity of attendance, variability of extra-school surroundings, poor 
teaching methods, etc. Indeed, the whole gamut of educational 
factors is opened to re-examination. 

6. A stimulus to interest. Comparisons may sometimes be 
odious but they are usually stimulating. Not only are compari- 
sons of schools made possible but comparisons of attainments are 
also possible. The former may be said to stimulate emulation 
and the latter to suggest elimination. It is the almost invariable 
experience that these studies when properly conducted cause 
the teachers and pupils to take a marked interest in their work 
and in the process of learning. The latter is a most desirable 
outcome if not carried too far. When the teacher asks herself, 
"Why are my pupils inaccurate in adding," or the pupils ask of 
themselves a similar question, there is hope for immediate im- 
provement. The most universal type of school motivation is 
superinduced, the desire for progress. 

IV. OTHER STUDIES OF A SIMILAR NATURE. 

In 1892 a series of articles on "The American Public School," 
by J. M. Rice, appeared in The Forum.^ They purported to be 
word pictures of actual teaching in some of the schools of certain 
cities in the United States with the author's scathing criticisms. 
A few years later Dr. Rice conceived the idea of giving the same 
tests in arithmetic and spelling in various schools and succeeded 
in accumulating much interesting data. This seems to have been 
the beginning of the modern movement in education in deriving 
standard tests and scales and in using them to evaluate teaching 
conditions and achievements. In 1908 C. W. Stone^ took up a 
similar problem in a more systematic manner. S. A. Courtis^ then 
started his work upon his now famous tests in the four funda- 
mentals in arithmetic. In 1910 E. L. Thorndike* developed his 
handwriting scale. 

Since that time a great many standard scales and tests have 
been derived, covering practically all subjects of the elementary 
and high school. The value of these instruments of evaluation 

1 The Forum, Vol. XIV, p. 145 et seq. 

2 Stone, C. W., "Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determining Them." Columbia 

University Contributions to Education (1908). 

3 Courtis, S. A., "The Courtis Standard Tests in the Three R's" (1914). 
4Thorndike, E. L., "Handwriting" (1916). 

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and appraisal of school work is inestimable. 

In 1910 the first definitely planned school survey^ was under- 
taken in the city of Boise, Idaho. During the next year a survey^ 
of the schools of New York City was begun and in this survey 
the Courtis arithmetic tests were employed. Since this time a 
great many surveys have been made and standard tests and 
scales have been employed more and more in these surveys. 

Two types of surveys to which this study is related are under- 
taken. One is an intensive study of some one school system, 
the other is an extensive study of the work being done in certain 
subjects in many systems. As this investigation is of the latter 
type we may note a few examples more in detail. 

One of the first thoroughgoing studies of a character similar 
to the present one was undertaken under the direction of M. E. 
Haggerty,^ in Indiana, in 1914. A comparative study of arith- 
metic abilities among the elementary school pupils in twenty 
cities was made, using the Courtis tests. Tests were given in 
the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grades. Information was also obtained 
as to when the children taking the tests had begun the study 
of arithmetic and the total school time devoted to the subject. 

A detailed tabulation was made of the number of attempts 
(speed) and rights (accuracy) of each operation (addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division) of each grade of each city, 
both in gross numbers and in per cents, with medians and varia- 
bilities. These data were also graphed. Tables showing the 
ranking of the grades of each city in attempts and rights and the 
total rankings were also given. An attempt to ascertain the 
optimum period for beginning arithmetic and the optimum period 
to be devoted to it were also made from a study of the tables 
showing the distribution of the times for beginning the study 
and the times devoted to it in comparison with the records of 
achievement of the children. Some rather startling results 
appeared in the tables. Some grades showing superior ability 
were devoting much less time to the subject than other grades 
which showed poorer ability. The fact that the test covered 
only the four fundamental operations, whereas the time reported 



B Van Sickle, J. H., "Progress in City School Systems," in Report of Commissioner of 

Education (1913). Vol. I, p. 109. 
6 Supra (1914), Vol. I, p. 39. 
1 Haggerty, M. E., "Arithmetic: A Co-operative Study in Educational Measurements" 

(1915). Indiana University Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 18. 

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covered all other arithmetical operations as well, prevented any- 
very decisive conclusions. 

Among other somewhat similar surveys are those of Ash- 
baugh/ Bobbitt^ and Judd.^ Since these pioneer studies were 
made many similar ones have been made in nearly every state. 

This study follows, in the main, the methods used in the fore- 
going surveys. It differs in the kinds of tests and scales used 
and in the extent of the application of them, being more in kind 
and greater in extent (number of towns and cities) than most 
other similar undertakings. It also has the advantage of having 
made two tests of equal difficulty during the same school year. 

V. METHOD OF PROCEDURE. 

1. Derivation o£ Standard Scales and Tests. A detailed 
examination of the methods of deriving a standard test or scale 
does not concern this study excepting that the principles involved 
must be understood, rightly to interpret the data derived from the 
giving of the tests. 

Uniformity of procedure with uniform material, and results 
from large numbers of children are essential to the standardiza- 
tion of a test or scale. This briefly summarizes the principles 
observed by Ayres in deriving the spelling and writing scales 
used, by Courtis in deriving the arithmetic tests, and by Hag-' 
gerty in revising the Thorndike reading test. 

The Ayres spelling scale has one advantage over other scales 
in that the spelling difficulties are distributed according to a fre- 
quently used probability surface.* This makes it possible to make 
a rigid mathematical analysis of the spelling difficulties, with a 
narrow range, of all of the thousand words in his list. 

2. Securing of data. The custom which has obtained in 
this study and in studies of a similar nature to this has been as 
follows : 

a. Tests are sent to co-operating teachers with full 
printed instructions as to the giving and tabulating of the 
tests. 

1 Ashbaugh, E. J., "The Arithmetical Skill of Iowa School Children." University of 

Iowa Extension Btilletin- No. 24 (1916). 

2 Bobbitt, J. F., "The Illinois Survey" (1917), p. 223. 

3Judd, C. H., "Measuring the Work of the Public Schools" (1916). 

♦Treated as Form A, by Thorndike. (See Chapter XIII of his Mental and Social 
Measurements. ) 

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b. Score sheets together with all test papers are 
received. 

c. Scoring of individual papers is checked and 
tested for accuracy and rescoring made when neces- 
sary. Tabulated returns are corrected when necessary. 

3. Tabulating and graphing of data. 

4. Statistical methods involved. The classification and 
interpretation of the data are based upon certain accepted statis- 
tical methods. A few of the definitions, explanations and form- 
ulae employed in this study are as follows : 

a. Median. This is the point above and below which are 
found an equal number of cases. In determining this point the 
formula used by Whipple^ was followed in computing the spelling 

N + 1 

medians in the first test. Formula : M= 

2 
After the appearance in the Seventeenth Year Book, Part II, 
pp. 121-2, the National Society for the Study of Education, of 

N 
Buckingham's arguments for the formula M:= — , the latter was 

2 
adopted for the remaining computations. The method of com- 
puting the median is explained in following pages. 

Intervals of distribution are interpreted by the method used 
by Courtis.^ If the measures are 1, 2, 3, etc., the interval is inter- 
preted as extending from 1 to 1.9; from 2 to 2.9, etc. 

b. Variability. In computing variability the measures "me- 
dian deviation" and "percentage of variability" are employed. 

Median deviation is the median of the deviates of the several 
measures in the distribution from their median or central ten- 
dency. Where distributions are normal this is the "probable 
error." 

Percentage of variability is the measure of variability 
(median deviation) divided by the central tendency (median). 

The quartile range is explained on following pages. 

c. Correlation. The principle was adopted that calculations 
should not be refined beyond the accuracy which their original 

1 Whipple, Guy Montrose, "Simple Processes," p. 9. 

2 Courtis: "Standard Tests," Folder D, Series B, p. 8. This is the "Definite Step" of 

James. See School and Society, March 16, 1918, pp. 319-20. 

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measures would warrant.^ The method employed for calculating 

6SD2 

correlations was the rank difference method: P=:l 

n(n2— 1) 
r is found from table.^ No r is considered as entitled to scientific 
consideration unless it is > 3 P. E.^. Other correlations and 
statistical treatments are explained when used. 

VI. THE FORMULATION OF SOUTH DAKOTA 
STANDARDS. 

1. Subjects chosen. The subjects chosen were the four 
fundamental elementary school subjects: (1) writing, (2) spell- 
ing, (3) arithmetic, and (4) reading. It was believed that stand- 
ard attainments in these subjects would constitute a fair index 
for appraising the character of the work in the elementary schools 
of the state. 

2. The tests used. 

Arithmetic : Courtis Standard Research Tests, Series B, 
Form 4. 

Handwriting : A stanza of simple poetry written and rewrit- 
ten for three minutes and scored with the Ayres Handwriting 
Scale, Gettysburg edition. 

Spelling: Three tests from three lists taken from the Ayres 
Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. 

Reading: Haggerty's Understanding of Sentences, Scale 
Beta I. 

3. The invitation to co-operate. An invitation to all of the 
principals and superintendents of town and city schools was pre- 
pared and extended.^ Forty-two of them responded and have 
actively co-operated in getting these data. In preparing this 
invitation the fact that this kind of work is comparatively new 
was borne in mind. An attempt was made to put the invitation 
in such form as would secure the attention of the principals and 
superintendents and interest them in the project. The invitation, 
therefore, reported some of the results of related research work in 
non-technical terms and gave only enough tables and graphs to 
illustrate the possibilities of studies of this kind. As this invita- 

1 Strayer and Norsworthy: "How to Teach," p. 283. 

2 Thorndike: "Mental and Social Measurements," p. 168. 

3 Rugg: "Statistical Methods," p. 272. 

1 Bulletin of the Bureau of Research, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, 
South Dakota, July, 1918. 

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tion to co-operate was prepared by the writer and was an essen- 
tial step in this investigation and study, it is given in full. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. 
Foreword. 

Within recent years a great movement has been started in the 
field of education in measuring educational progress and in test- 
ing methods and procedures. While present methods of educa- 
tional and mental diagnosis leave much to be desired they have 
proved to be instruments with which every teacher should be 
thoroughly familiar. 

For a number of years the Northern Normal and Industrial 
School has been doing considerable work in familiarizing its pros- 
pective graduates with these recent scientific studies in education, 
in helping them to acquire the use of scales, measures, and tests 
and teaching them how to interpret data derived from their use. 
The splendid practice facilities afforded in the city schools of 
Aberdeen make this work unusually successful. 

It is the purpose of the Bureau of Educational Research to 
widen the scope of this scientific study of problems of education. 
It is the desire of the school to stimulate this type of study and 
investigation on the part of progressive superintendents and 
teachers of the state and to be of service to them. The school 
can be of assistance in giving tests and in organizing and tabulat- 
ing the data and in drawing conclusions from the educational 
situations revealed. 

Scale Use Illustrated. 

This bulletin will fall into the hands of some teachers and 
superintendents who are not familiar with these studies. The 
following illustration of the use of a scale may make clearer 
these studies and experiments whereby education is being made 
more definite. 

Two samples of handwriting were passed out to a class of 
fifty-nine normal students, most of whom had had teaching expe- 
rience. These samples were of exactly equal quality and two 
were used simply to facilitate the work of grading. The students 
were asked to grade the papers, each one marking independently 
of the others the grade in per cent on a card. They were asked 

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to grade on the basis of legibility. One person estimated the 
handwriting to be worth 35, and four thought it should be graded 
90, the range of grades covering 55 points. The distribution of 
grades is shown in the following diagram. Each dot represents 
a student's grade. The median or middle grade was 75 and the 
average grade was 72. The mode or number most often was 80. 



25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 

Fig. 1. Grading a Paper Without Using Scale. 

Distribution of 59 normal school students' grades given a 
paper in handwriting without the use of a scale. Each dot repre- 
sents the grade assigned by one student. 

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25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 
Fig. 2. Grading Same Paper, Using Scale. 

Same as Figure 1 excepting that the normal school students 
used a scale in grading the same handwriting sample. 

The same experiment was made with a class of forty-nine 
students in a university college of education, all of whom were 
teachers of extended experience. The following diagrams show 
that the results were essentially the same as with the normal 
school class : 

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25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 

Fig. 3. Grading a Paper Without Using Scale. 

Distribution of grades given to the same sample of handwrit- 
ing as used in Figures 1 and 2, by 49 college students, no scale 
being used. 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 

Fig. 4. Grading Same Paper, Using Scale. 

Same as Figure 3 excepting that the college students used a 
scale. 

This experiment clearly demonstrated to these classes the 
fact that judgments of teachers are far more reliable when a 
standard scale is used. Many investigations which have been 
made in recent years have demonstrated the wide variation and 
lack of standards in evaluating school work, rating teachers, pro- 
moting pupils, etc. When a county superintendent in South 
Dakota reported the failure of a boy to pass the eighth grade the 



Page twelve 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 



liilliltllliliiiniiiiiiiiiiriniiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiii 

irate parent flashed before him the pupil's monthly reports show- 
ing his grades from month to month never fell below 90 and 
averaged over 95! What was the trouble? Either the teacher 
did not have any definite or fair standard of evaluating his work 
or the teacher was dishonest. The latter alternative may be dis- 
missed. 

There was a time when such measures as miles, feet, inches 
and other measures of definite value where unknown. Primitive 
people can only evaluate distances in such vague terms as "very 
far," "many days' journey," etc. In this early period of develop- 
ment economic values, weights, bulk, etc., were similarly vague. 
A horse was worth "heap-much," a large quantity was "like the 
leaves in the forest." Civilization was possible only when defi- 
nite, quantifying processes of evaluation were discovered and 
generally accepted. While the analogy can not be pressed, in a 
general way it may be said that education is emerging from the 
state of "very good" in handwriting to "number 14" in the 
Thorndike scale, or "85 in the Ayres scale" ; when "poor in com- 
position" is supplanted by a definite measure as "rated number 5 
in description, Harvard-Newton Scale"; when "passing in third 
grade spelling," is "Ayres Scale, 84 in J, 79 in K," etc. 

Take the instance of the handwriting sample which was 
judged by the classes as just described. Let us say it is rated 40 
with the Ayres scale. The pupil can use the scale and see that 
that is a fair rating. Indeed, it is a great stimulus to the pupil to 
have such a scale before him and permit him to measure his prog- 
ress. This sample was taken from a fourth grade pupil in St. 
Paul. The Ayes standard for the fourth grade is 46. This is 
the median score of thousands of samples of fourth grade hand- 
writing obtained from many cities. The median of practically 
all of the fourth grade pupils taken in St. Paul is 49. Such a 
report as the following could be made : 

Report of Fourth Grade 

Handwriting Score 40 

(Ayres standard score 46, St. Paul standard score 49.) 

Such a report would be intelligible to any well trained grade 
teacher in the United States. It would have definite significance 
to superintendent, supervisor, teacher, pupil and parent. 

Page thirteen 

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiniMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiitiiii 

Use of Standard Tests. 

Figure 5 shows the improvement made by six third grades in 
reading in a South Dakota city. These grades are designated by 
rooms as A, B, C, D, E and F. The lower curve represents the 
scores made by the six third grades in December; the upper curve 
shows the standings of these same grades in the following May. 



40 



35 



So 



25 



20 



15 



10 



















— 


\ 






I 








\ 




/ 


\ 








\ 




/ 


\ 








\ 




/ 


\ 












May~> 


VCRAG 

/ 


E 








^ 


^ 


/ 








- >^ 


^ 










y 


De< 


CMBEfl 


^VER 


KGC 

















Rooms ABC D e F 



Fig. 5. Comparison of Reading Scores In Six Third Grades, 
December and May. 

The following table gives the scores of each of the third 



grades 



Page fourteen 



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Room 


December Score 


May Score 


Improvement 


A 


3.8 


38.3 


34.5 


B 


5.0 


37.7 


32.7 


C 


8.7 


17.9 


9.2 


D 


10.9 


18.8 


7.9 


E 


12.4 


36.3 


23.9 


F 


17.2 


19.4 


2.2 



It is quite noticeable that while all third grades improved in 
the five months' interval, not all grades improved equally. It is 
a remarkable fact that room A, which ranked lowest in Decem- 
ber, with a score of 3.8, improved the most both relatively and 
absolutely (34.5 points), finishing in first rank. The teacher of 
room A was considerably stimulated by the low ranking of her 
class in the December scores. She set deliberately to work to 
improve her grade and Figure 5 shows that she accomplished her 
purpose, this in spite of the fact that the children of her room, 
who were from the poorer homes, were thought by the rest of the 
teachers to be incapable of normal improvement. Is it not an 
excellent thing for a teacher to know the comparative standing 
and the improvement made by her pupils? On the other hand, 
room F, which ranked first in December, with a score of 17.2, 
improved the least, both relatively and absolutely (2.2), finishing 
the school year with rank four. Similar studies in any city are 
almost sure to reveal equally illuminating facts. 

Superintendents and teachers find the scientific use of stand- 
ard scales and tests splendid instruments for evaluating their 
methods. Are the customary methods employed in teaching the 
four fundamental operations in arithmetic the best that can be 
evolved? The fact to be mentioned presently that one city gave 
twice the time to arithmetic that another city gave and got poorer 
results, shows that great improvement in methods is possible. 
An experiment was made in the fifth grades in two South Dakota 
schools to test the efficacy of a certain form of number drill. The 
following table shows the results, school W being the one em- 
ploying the special drill, school M using the customary number 

work, both schools devoting the same amount of time to arith- 
metic work between the October test and the April test. 

Page fifteen 



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iiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiti 



October Score 
April Score . . . 
Change 

October Score 
April Score. . . 
Change 

October Score 
April Score . . . 
Change 

October Score 
April Score. . . 
Change 



School W 



School M 



Speed I Accuracy Speed I Accuracy 



Addition 



6.5 

7.6 

+1.1 



43% 

58% 

+ 15% 



6.4 

6.4 

.0 



39% 

43% 

+ 4% 



Subtraction 



6.8 

8.7 

+1.9 



51% 

78% 

+27% 



6.6 
8.1 

+1.5 



58% 
61% 

+ 3% 



Multiplication 



5.9 
8.1 

+2.2 



44% 

68% 

+24% 



5.7 
5.3 
- .4 



53% 

73% 

+20% 



Division 



4.1 

5.2 

+ 1.1 



39% 

67% 

+28% 



3.9 

5.0 

+ 1.1 



36% 

60% 

+24% 



From this table it will be seen that in the process of addi- 
tion school W improved in speed from 6.5 examples to 7.6 exam- 
ples, making an improvement of 1.1 examples; the increase in 
accuracy was from ^ 43% to 58%, a gain of 15%. On the other 
hand school M made no improvement in speed, remaining at a 
score of 6.4 examples; and it increased in accuracy from 39% 
to 43%, a gain of only 4%. School W showed a decided gain in 
accuracy over school M in all operations and a superior gain in 
speed excepting in division, where the schools tied. 

It is quite evident from these data that the particular system 
of drills employed in school W gave better results than the cus- 
tomary methods employed in school M. In a similar way scien- 
tific measurement may be employed in other phases of education 
as well as in arithmetic. 

Significant Situations Revealed. 

Work of this kind often reveals many interesting and signifi- 
cant situations and opens the way to remedying defects thus dis- 
covered. A few scattered cases may make this clearer. 

One fifth grade in city A in South Dakota was found to be 
better in thought getting in silent reading than any sixth grade in 
the city and than several seventh grades. Was this a fact worth 



Page sixteen 
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iiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiMiitiHiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiicriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

discovering? 

A seventh grade in city S in Minnesota was found to be 
twelve points higher in speed in writing than the median for that 
grade in the city, but six points lower in general quality. Was a 
discovery of this sacrifice of quality for speed worth knowing? 

City number fifteen in Indiana spent one hundred thousand 
minutes in arithmetic in the grades, city number eight in the same 
state spent fifty-two thousand five hundred minutes in arithmetic. 
The pupils in city eight, however, worked twelve per cent faster 
than those in city fifteen and were equally accurate. Was an 
investigation into the methods in use in city fifteen in order? 
Without this scientific study how long would it have been before 
such an investigation would have been made? 

Two twins looked and dressed very much alike. They were 
rated by the personal judgments of their teachers as equal in 
ability. Careful tests, covering several months, showed them to 
be mentally very unlike, and educationally at least fifteen per 
cent apart. Was there a need for an objective, impersonal meas- 
ure and did this startling showing help the teacher in revising 
not only her estimate but also her teaching? 

On what definite facts do you base your judgments as to the 
qualities of your teachers or your teaching? Do you know how 
your ten-year-olds are distributed in the grades, in subjects, and 
in rate of progress? One leading superintendent in South Dakota 
said, after co-operative investigation with us and study for a 
year, "If all the information we have obtained concerning the 
actual work going on in our schools had been valueless, though 
it was far from that, the work was well worth the while in the 
spur and the quickened interest it gave all of us, superintendent, 
supervisors, teachers, and pupils." 

Work Proposed for 1917-18. 

For the year 1917-18 the Bureau of Research of the Northern 
Normal and Industrial School will undertake work along four 
lines, as follows:. A. studies in arithmetic; B. studies in hand- 
writing; C. studies in spelling; D. studies in reading. 

A. Studies in Arithmetic. The Courtis standard tests in 
arithmetic have been used widely in measuring the results of 
school work in the four fundamental processes. In several states 

Page seventeen 

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiniriiiiiiiiiirMiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

they have been used by superintendents in co-operative investiga- 
tion. Standard state scores have been established in some states. 
It is proposed to make a similar use of the tests in South Dakota. 
If a number of superintendents and principals wrill give the tests 
during the current year and send the results to the Bureau of 
Educational Research, comparative studies will be made and the 
results will be issued in printed form. Each school officer will 
thus be able to know the ranking of his own school in reference 
to the South Dakota standard which will be developed. No gen- 
eral publicity is given by this Bureau as to the results of tests in 
any school or city. Schools and cities are designated by symbols 
in all tables or published statements. The use of the Courtis 
Arithmetic Tests is advised in grades five to eight. 

B. Studies in Handwriting. In the field of handwriting an 
opportunity will be afforded for the use of one of the newest edu- 
cational scales produced by Dr. L. P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage 
Foundation, the Gettysburg edition of his handwriting scale. The 
test sheets used in obtaining the samples of pupils' handwriting 
are especially prepared in order to render uniform and standard 
the condition of -testing from school system to school system. 
The use of this test is advised in grades three to eight. 

C. Studies in Spelling. The study in spelling will be largely 
concerned with words in common use in English writing. The 
list of words used will be selected from the studies of recognized 
authorities. The use of this test is advised in grades three to 
eight. 

D. Studies in Reading. Reading is considered by many 
the most important single subject in the common school cur- 
riculum. Conflicting methods in teaching reading are the subject 
of much discussion and controversy. Definite data obtained 
through careful investigation are needed in this field. The Read- 
ing Scale Beta for the Understanding of Sentences has been 
widely used as a test of thought-getting ability. It is hoped that 
a South Dakota reading standard may be determined and that 
scientific methods of testing results in reading may be encour- 
aged. These reading tests are devised for grades three to eight 
or nine, one set being for grades three to five and the other for 
grades six to eight or nine. 

Dates for Giving Tests. That relatively uniform conditions 
may be obtained it is urged that two tests be planned, one in the 

Page eighteen 

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IIIIMIIIIIIIIMMIIIIMMinillllllUllltlllllllllinilllllllllMIIIIMMIMIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIinltlllMMiriMIIIIIMIItltllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUm 

early fall and the other in the late spring. Progress in learning 
may then be measured and fall and spring standards derived for 
the state. 

It is urged that these tests be given during the last week in 
September or the first week in October so that the results can be 
treated, as a whole, as October 1st scores, and that the tests to be 
furnished for the spring be given the last week in April and the 
first week in May so that the results may be treated as May 1st 
scores. Any school not giving the tests at approximately the 
same dates and under other uniform conditions will lose the 
opportunity to make comparisons with other schools as to condi- 
tions and progress. 

Special Aid. Frequently school executives are unable to 
secure adequate assistance in compiling the data obtained by 
means of standard tests. The Bureau will arrange and compile 
gratis any and all materials included in the four proposed fields. 
In these fields all that the co-operating members need to do, is to 
conduct the giving of the tests and to return all materials to the 
Bureau where the compilations will be made. By special arrange- 
ments the school will furnish an expert to give tests and any 
instructions relative to this work. 

Additional Tests. Although it seems best for common educa- 
tional interests that an intensive study be made along a few lines 
only, prospective members who are interested in other fields of 
work may receive suggestions and other aid from the Bureau on 
tests in the following school subjects: reading (vocabulary), lan- 
guage, composition, grammar, arithmetic (Woody tests), geog- 
raphy. United States history, algebra, and Latin. 

Correspondence Invited. Persons desiring to become identi- 
fied with the Bureau should determine what line or lines of inves- 
tigation they wish to follow and write for further information 
regarding the problems in which they are interested. The Bureau 
will be glad to answer questions regarding any of the proposed 
studies. 

Address all communications to Bureau of Educational 
Research, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, 
South Dakota. 

4. The Giving of the Tests. Full and complete instructions 
for each test were furnished each room teacher or principal who 
gave the tests. These instructions were as follows : 

Page nineteen 

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IIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIilllllllllll 

HANDWRITING 

Directions for Giving and Scoring Tests. 

1. Materials. Paper with a stanza of simple poetry printed 
at the top. 

2. For grade 3 two well sharpened pencils. 

3. For grades 4-8, pen and ink. 

1. Method of Giving Test. Distribute to each pupil one 
sheet of the paper. 

2. Have the pupils write the information called for in 
appropriate blanks at the top of the page, 

3. Have the children read the stanza through silently sev- 
eral times so that they may write it easily without looking back 
at the printed form too frequently. 

4. Give the following instructions to the class: "I am 
going to test your handwriting. You will be given three minutes 
in which to write. If you fill one page turn the sheet over and 
write on the other side. You will be graded both on the amount 
you write and how well you write. You must, therefore, write 
as well as you can, and also as fast as you can. When I say 
'Ready,* see that your paper is properly placed and that your 
pen is inked. When I say 'Start,' begin to write and continue 
to write until I say 'Stop.' Remember : Fast work and good 
work. Ready. Start." 

Give exactly three minutes. The time can be kept with the 
second hand of an ordinary watch. The teacher will find it 
advantageous to start the children at the beginning of the minute 
when the second hand is on the 60 mark. 

Before taking up the papers have each pupil count the num- 
ber of letters he has written. He should write this number at 
the top of his test sheet. 

The Ayres Scale. The Ayres scale was arranged on the 
principle of legibility, i. e., the time required for the reading of a 
specimen of handwriting determined where it should be placed 
on the scale. The specimens at the right are quickly read. Those 
at the left require a longer time for the reading of the same 
number of words. In using the scale, this fact must be kept 
in mind. 

Method of Scoring. The method of using the scale is a 

Page twenty 

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiii 

method of comparison. Arrange the papers of the class in an 
alphabetical order. Take the first child's paper and place it 
beside the lower part of the scale. If you judge the handwriting 
to be better than the specimen under 20, compare it with those 
under 30 and so on up the scale until you find the section it is 
most nearly like. 

In making the comparisons it is best to pass on up the 
scale until you reach specimens which are clearly superior to 
the one you are grading. You then go back on the scale until 
you reach the section again which you deem most like the 
writing you are grading. Several movements up and down the 
scale may be necessary to fix the correct score. 

If you judge the writing to be not so good as the specimen 
on the scale but better than the one next lower on the scale, 
give it a value intermediate between the two. 

In order to use the scale effectively, it is necessary to keep 
in mind exactly what it is supposed to measure. Your judgment 
should not be based on similarity of form, of slant, of alignment, 
of spacing, or of beauty. The Ayres scale is a scale for legibility, 
i. e., ease of reading and the judge should keep this fact con- 
stantly in mind. On your ability to do this will depend your 
efficiency in using the scale. If judgment is made on the likeness 
of any other element, the result will be unsatisfactory. 

Final Score. When you have located the specimen satis- 
factorily, write the name of the pupil on the class record sheet 
and write the score beside the name in the column marked 
"First Judge." Do not put any mark on the child's paper. Secure 
similar marking for each paper from two other persons who 
know how to use the scale. When all the marks of the three 
judges have been recorded on the class record sheet make out 
the "final score" for each pupil. For this "final score" choose 
the value intermediate between the other two scores. Thus, 
if a composition is graded 45, 55, and 60 by three judges, the 
intermediate value is 55 and this would be the "final score" of 
the writing. 

(1) Class Score. Arrange the final scores in a column in 
order of magnitude, placing the highest score at the top. 

(2) Divide this column by drawing a horizontal line 
through a score or between two scores so that as many scores 

Page twenty-one 
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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

appear above the line so drawn as appear below it. 

(3) In a similar fashion, divide the scores falling below the 
line into two halves. When this is done, three-fourths of all 
the scores of the class will appear above the line just drawn. 

(4) The score immediately above this line will then be 
considered the score for the class, because three-fourths of the 
class will equal or exceed that score. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TESTING SPELLING ABILITY 
IN GRADES 3 TO 8. 

The Test. 

The test consists of 50 words divided into three lists, two of 
fifteen words each and one of twenty words. The lists are as 
follows : 



List 1. 

dress 

begun 

sight 

goes 

paid 

ticket 

recover 

deal 

event 

again 

follow 

case 

those 

who 

few 



List 2. 



List 3. 



engage 


motion 


addition 


improvement 


firm 


total 


debate 


arrive 


represent 


assist 


entire 


examination 


estate 


afifair 


due 


neither 


field 


marriage 


Saturday 


serious 


themselves 


condition 


justice 


opinion 


wonderful 


piece 


although 


witness 


imprison 


system 


terrible 


' 


property 




convict 




factory 




relative 





Method of Giving the Test. 

These words should be pronounced by the teacher to the 



Page twenty-two 

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

correctly during the entire test. In the column marked "Per 
Cent," record the per cent of all words correctly spelled. 

Class Score. As there are fifty words in the three lists 
the value of each word is 2%. Thus if a pupil spells thirty-two 
words correctly, his score in per cent will be 64. 

The totals are found by adding each of the four columns, 
including records from all of the children in the class. 

The "class percentage for each list" is found as follows: 
To find the class percentage for list 1, multiply the number of 
children by 15 (the number of words in list 1), and divide the 
total correct spellings in that list (shown as total in list 1) by 
that product. Suppose there are thirty children in the class 
and the total number of correct spellings in the first test, list 1, 
is 270, the percentage of this class for list 1 will be 60 (i. e., 
270 -f- (30 X 15) =60 per cent). The percentage for list 3 will 
be found in exactly the same way as for list 1 as there are 
fifteen words in list 3. In list 2 it should be observed that 
there are twenty words and therefore 20 should be substituted 
children as an exercise in written spelling. One list should be 
given each day. The children should not know about the words 
previous to the spelling exercise. There should be no previous 
practice in the spelling of these particular words and the spelling 
test should be kept out of sight of the children. 

At the top of each test paper the child should write his name, 
sex, age in years and months, grade, school, name of teacher, 
and the date of the test. 

These tests may be written on any paper of convenient size 
and, if possible, the same sheet should be used for all three lists, 
each list being properly headed. Immediately after each test 
the sheets should be collected and the scores recorded on "Class 
Record Sheet Number 1." 

Method of Scoring the Test. 

Individual Scores. The paper of each child should be scored 
for the number of words correctly spelled. This score should 
be recorded at the top of the test paper. 

Arrange the names of the class alphabetically on the class 
score sheet. Copy from the individual test sheets the number 
of words correctly spelled by each child each day. In the 
column marked "total" record the total number of words spelled 

Page twenty-thiee 

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

for 15 in making the computations. 

At the bottom of the columns headed "1st list," "2d list," 
and "3d list," respectively, will be placed the class percentage 
for each list. At the bottom of the column headed "total" will 
be placed the class percentage for the three tests. This is the 
total class score. This is found as follows : Multiply the num- 
ber of children in the class by 50 (the total number of words in 
the three lists) and divide the total number of correct spellings 
in all three lists by this product. 

These directions will not be found difficult if they are fol- 
lowed literally and one step is taken at a time. 

When the individual children are recorded on Class Record 
Sheet No. 1, count the number of children making 100 per cent 
and record opposite 100 on Class Record Sheet No. 2. Proceed 
similarly with the number of children making each score. 

Grade and City Scores. Grade and city scores can be made 
in a manner similar to the making of class scores. 

In returning the results to the Bureau of Educational 
Research, include the individual test papers as graded and all 
class record sheets made out. 

READING AND ARITHMETIC. 

The directions for giving and scoring the tests in reading 
were those published as "Form 9" as arranged by the Bureau 
of Cooperative Research of the University of Minnesota. 

The directions and explanations published as "Folder D, 
Series B," Courtis Standard Tests, were sent out to each of 
the cooperating cities and towns. 

5. Testing for Accuracy. Upon receipt of the test papers 
of the pupils and the score sheets prepared by their teachers a 
painstaking work of verification was begun. Many papers had 
to be rescored and score sheets filled anew. In some cases 
considerable correspondence was necessary to ascertain, verify 
or confirm some information. Excepting for the fact that many 
different teachers gave the tests, a handicap which any extensive 
research of this kind must inevitably possess, the data may be 
considered accurate and reliable. 

6. Resulting Tables. The towns and cities cooperating in 
this study are as follows : 



Page twenty-four 

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Aberdeen 

Ashton 

Belle Fourche 

Bradley 

Britton 

Brookings 

Chester 

Clark 

Conde 

Dallas 

Egan 

Fort Pierre 

Freeman 



Garretson 

Groton 

Hecla 

Huron 

Kimball 

Lake Preston 

Langford 

Lemmon 

Marvin 

Mcintosh 

McLaughlin 

Miller 

Mobridge 



Nisland 

Philip 

Redfield 

Sioux Falls 

Sisseton 

Sisseton (Rural) 

Stratford 

Volin 

Watertown 

Waubay 

Wilmot 

White Lake 

White Rock 



These towns and cities are indicated by numbers. The 
order is not alphabetical. Not all cities and towns completed 
the work in such form as made the data available for this report. 

VII. REPORT ON HANDWRITING. 

L Fall Tests. The handwriting tests were given in South 
Dakota cities and towns about October 1, 1917. For various 
reasons data from a number of the cooperating schools are not 
given in this report. Each city in these lists is designated by 
the letter C and a number, and each town by the letter T and a 
number. Neither list is arranged alphabetically. 

The handwriting attainments of the children in these cities 
and towns rank considerably below those of cities in general, as 
will be seen from the tables and graphs. 

The report shows the median scores for the school children 
in each city and town, by grades, the quartile range and the 
per cent of variability. As these terms may not be familiar to 
all, they are explained and illustrated as follows : 

2. Median Explained. The median, or middle score, is used 
instead of the average for several reasons, principally because a 
few very good scores or a few very poor scores disturb the 
position of the average, but not of the median. 

The method of computing the median may be illustrated as 
follows : 



Page twenty-five 
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Per 


No. of 


Cent 


Pupils 


80 


1 


75 


1 


70 


2 


65 


1 


60 


2 


55 


4 


50 


7 


45 


5 


40 


15 


35 


17 


30 


18 


25 


6 


20 


1 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Hill riiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii III iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii III III iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

'Here are the distribution's of the scores made 
by seventh grade pupils in city 7 in quality of 
handwriting. There are 80 pupils in this grade. 
One scored 80%,* or more than 80% and less 
than 85%; one scored 75%, or more than 75% 
and less than 80% ; two scored 70%, or more 
than 70% and less than 75%, etc. The median 
pupil is the 40th. (This is, strictly speaking, 
the mid-point.) To find the score of the 40th 
pupil we may begin at the bottom and count 
upwards, 1 -f 6 + 18 = 25. The 40th is in the 
group of 17 pupils who score from 35% to 
nearly 40%. He is the 15th in the group. 
Let us suppose these 17 are evenly distributed 
from 35% to 40%.t The 15th in the group 
will be 15/17 of 5%, more than 35%. This is 
39.4%, the median score. 
This may be verified by counting downwards from the high- 
est ranking pupil to the 40th. 1 + 1+2 4-1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 5 
+ 15 = 38. Two more will make 40. The second pupil down- 
wards into the group of 17 is the median, 2/17 of 5% less than 
40% is his score. This is 40% — ,6%, or 39.4%, 

3. Quartile Range. By quartile range (O) is meant the 
distribution of half of the class about the median, one quarter 
above and one quarter below. As this value is highly signifi- 
cant, the method of calculating it is illustrated as follows : 

Take the case of the 80 seventh grade children. The score 
of the 20th child from the bottom is the mark of the first quartile 
(or quarter, designated Ql). This score is computed by the 
same method as the median. Beginning at the bottom 1+6 = 7. 
The 13th case of the 18 in the next group is the score of the 
20th child, or Ql. As we assume that the 18 children are 
scattered along evenly from 30% to 35%, the 13th of the 18, 

* Strictly speaking, these are not per cents. Ayres derived his scale by distributing his 
carefully rated samples in four equal steps on each side of 50, getting 20 as his 
lowest and 90 as his highest. In the attempt to simplify and avoid technicalities 
some slight inaccuracies may be pardoned. Those who wish to make a more 
complete study of statistical methods may consult Rugg: "Statistical Methods as 
Applied to Education"; Thorndike: "Mental and Social Measurements," and 
Monroe: "Educational Tests and Measurements," chapter VIII. An excellent 
bibliography of studies in educational measurements will be found in Part II of 
the Seventeenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education. 

t If this sentence is understood there will be little difficulty in what follows. 

Page twenty-six 

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who come between these per cents, will score 13/18 of 5% 
more than 30%. 13/18 of 5 = 3.6. 30% + 3.6% = 33.6% or Ql. 
Now the third quartile (Q3) will be the score of the 60th pupil. 
Adding from the bottom 1 -f- 6 + 18 -f 17 + 15 =r 57. The 60th 
will be the third in the group of 5 scoring from 45% to 50%. 
As the 5 are assumed to be evenly distributed from 45% to 
50%, the third will score 3/5 of 5% more than 45%, or 48%. 
This is Q3. 

The middle half of the pupils, from the 20th to the 60th, 
range in scores from 33.6% to 48%, or 14.4%. The quartile 
range will be one-half of this, or 7.2%. Thus we see that the 
middle quarter of the class vary 7.2% from the median.* 

4. Percentage of Variability. This is a measure which 
takes into account both the median and the quartile range. It is 
found by dividing the Q and the M. From this fraction Q/M 
it will be seen that the smaller the Q or the larger the M (both 
marks of superiority), the smaller will be the quotient or per- 
centage of variability. 

5. Distribution. One of the greatest discoveries of this 
century in education is the fact of individual differences. It was 
an underlying assumption of the pedagogy of the past that all 
children, save idiots and imbeciles, could make equal progress 
if they worked hard enough. The use of mental tests or meas- 
urements has clearly revealed a wide range of variability in 
intellectual capacities. A group system of instruction, however, 
must be based on fairly close classification. Too wide a range 
of abilities in the same class seriously interferes with successful 
teaching. This is less true, perhaps, in the case of writing than 
in other subjects. The following table shows the distribution 
of the 80 seventh grade pupils in quality of handwriting by 
grades according to Ayres' standard: 



Grade 


*2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


**8 




Ayres Standard Scores 


36 
35 


38 
13 


42 
11 


46 

4 


50 
5 


54 
4 


58 
3 


62 
2 


66 

4 


Number Children 





* Less than second grade. •* More than eighth grade. 

From this it will be seen that although the 80 pupils were 
classified in the seventh grade 35 of them had less than second 

* If the distribution is normal Q is the same as the "probable error" (P. E.). 



Page twenty -seven 

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Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllliillllll 

grade ability, 48 had less than third grade ability, etc. Only 
three in the group had seventh grade ability. It should be 
remembered that the Ayres scores are rather high and are mid- 
year or May scores, whereas these samples were taken in October. 
It should be remembered, too, that Ayres' standards are median 
scores, not passing scores. 

Spring Tests. The handwriting tests were given again in 
South Dakota cities and towns about May 1, 1918, each city and 
town keeping the same identification number used in the fall 
tests. In order to make the scoring for quality as nearly accu- 
rate as possible, all samples were judged by the same three 
people. 

The following table gives the median score, quartile range 
and variation for both fall and spring. 

Comments. A study of the following table and graph will 
immediately reveal the fact that as a whole the work of all 
grades is considerably below the standard for quality but above 
in regard to speed. It would look as though speed had been 
over-emphasized to the neglect of quality. In the fall the third 
and fourth grades were far below the standard, while now the 
third grade has sprung up above the standard for the fourth 
grade, and the fourth grade is slightly above the standard for 
the fifth grade. 

There is a very wide range of variability. The widest range 
in quality exists in the seventh grades, where TIO has a median 
score of 65% (above the eighth grade standard), and T13 has 
a median score of 35.8% (below the second grade standard), 
making a range of 29.2%. The eighth grade ranks next in regard 
to range, it being 26% between T2, with a median of 60% 
(2% below the eighth grade standard), and Tl, with a median 
of 34% (6% below the second grade standard). The lowest 
range of variability is shown by the fourth grades, where C13 
has a median score of 39% (7% below standard), and C8 has a 
median score of 30,8% (15.2% below standard), a range of 8.2%. 

The range of variability is even greater in speed than in 
quality, it being greatest in the third grade, where Cll has a 
median score of 81 letters per minute (two letters per minute 
above the eighth grade standard score), and CI has a median 
score of 30.3 letters per minute (13.7 letters per minute below 

Page twenty-eight 

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Pc^e thirty-one 
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the third grade standard), making a range of 50.7 letters per 
minute. The fourth grades come second with a range of 49.6 
letters per minute, where C13 has a median score of 105 letters 
per minute (the eighth grade standard is only 79), and C6 has 
a median score of 55.4 letters per minute (just above the stand- 
ard). The lowest range is shown by the fifth grade, where TIO 
has a median of 93.7 letters per minute (14.7 letters per minute 
above the eighth grade standard), and C7 has a median score oi 
64.4 letters per minute (.4 letter per minute above the fifth grade 
standard), making a range of 29.3 letters per minute. 

Every fourth, fifth and sixth grade represented here is above 
its standard in speed, likewise 15 thirds, 14 sevenths and 9 eighths 
(in all 90 classes), while there are 1 third, 2 sevenths and 4 
eighths below the standard. 

In quality, TIO is the only place above standard in the 
fifth, sixth and seventh grades, and Til is the only place whose 
third grade is above standard; thus there are but four classes 
among those represented herein which are above the Ayres 
standard. 

Among the third grades Til is the only one up to or above 
the standard in both quality and speed, TIO stands by itself 
as being the only place above Ayres' standards in both quality 
and speed in the fifth, sixth and seventh grades. More attention, 
however, should be given to quality in the eighth grade, where 
it fell considerably since fall, being sacrificed for unnecessarily 
high speed. 

It would now look as if quality is being sacrificed for speed 
rather widely throughout the state. 

Influence of Suggestion. After the fall scores had been 
computed and tabulated a circular letter was mimeographed and 
sent to the schools together with a tabulation of the scores. In 
this letter attention was called to the low rate of speed in the 
handwriting in the lower grades. It is probable that this sug- 
gestion to "speed up" was in part responsible for the exceptional 
increase in rate shown in the spring tests as the following table 
shows. The graph "Handwriting" shows this very vividly. 

Page thirty-two 

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Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Fall 


33.0 
56.4 
23.4 
44.0 


46.7 
64.6 
17.9 
55.0 


62.3 

71.8 

9.5 

64.0 


71.2 
81.5 
10.3 
71.0 


76.4 

83.6 

7.2 

76.0 


84 1 


SDrine: 


88 7 


>^*^ . » 

Gain 


4 1 


Ayres Standard 


79.0 



Handwriting — Gain in Speed. 

Recommendations. The first thing to be done is to bring 
the quahty a little nearer the standard, permitting those classes 
which are writing at such a high rate to slow up a trifle, and 
speeding up those few which are slightly low, such as CI, third 
grade. Some classes, such as Tl, eighth grade, show merely a 
change of emphasis, writing a little more rapidly, but corre- 
spondingly poorer. Such classes need much more intelligently 
supervised practice. 

A careful study of scores by the individual schools will 
reveal their own weak and strong points, and when seen no doubt 
the remedy will be self-evident. 

VIII. REPORT ON SPELLING. 

The situation and progress in spelling were tested by means 
of three lists of words. The first list consisted of fifteen words 
selected by chance from Ayres' list J; the second list, twenty 
words selected by chance from Ayres' list M; the third list, 
fifteen words selected by chance from Ayres' list Q. The median 
score in the total of the three lists for each grade in each city 
is given. This affords a very fair basis for comparison, grade 
for grade, city for city. The median on the first list is also 
given for the third and fourth grades, with an opportunity for 
comparison with Ayres' standard (list J. 84% for the third grade 
and 94% for the fourth grade). The same showing is made for 
the fifth and sixth grades with the second list (Ayres M), and 
for the seventh and eighth grades in the third list (Ayres Q), 
Lists of equal difiiculty were given in spring and fall. The graph 
and table show the result for both spring and fall, permitting 
many comparisons, only a few of which can be drawn in this 
report. 



Page thirty-three 

iiMiiiiiiiMiiitiiiiiitiiitiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiii 



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Comments and Recommendations. The graph shows very 
conclusively what the children can do so far as words of the 
degree of difficulty of those represented are concerned. The 
scores as a whole are very high. It looks as if some schools are 
over-emphasizing the easy words and neglecting the more diffi- 
cult words. Til, third grade, is below the median in the 50 
word list, and above the median and the standard for list J (the 
easiest words). CI and C7 , third grade, are in somewhat the 
same position and show a strong lack of homogeneity. C3, C9 
and Tl, fifth grade, are rather low on the 50 word list, but 
above standard for list M, indicating that not enough emphasis 
has been placed upon the more difficult words. C3, sixth grade, 
is below the standard, and more work is needed on all classes 
of words, it being low on list M, and below the fifth grade 
state median, in fact being only slightly above the fourth grade 
state median for the 50 word list. C7, sixth grade, is also just 
above the fourth grade state median on the 50 word list, but is 
above the standard in list M, showing need of work upon the 
more difficult words. Til, seventh grade, needs more difficult 
words also, as does Tl, eighth grade. C9 is very good in spelling 
in all save the fifth grade. TIO deserves favorable mention, as 
do several others. 

It may be well to notice that the greatest improvement in 
the 50 word list median was made by C9, third grade, with 45 
points, while Tl, third grade, comes next with 40 points. The 
third grade in TIO is equal in spelling to the state median for 
the fourth grade, and is as efficient as the sixth grade in C3 
and C7. The seventh grade in C9 and the eighth grade in Tl 
are no better than the fourth grades in C8, C9 and T2. There is 
little difference in the state medians for grades five and six, 
seven and eight. 

The chart representing the distribution of medians will 
show that the general trend is higher in each grade for the 
spring. 

There is practically no difference between the spelling abil- 
ity of children in the cities and those of the towns. 

Page thirty-four 

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Pa^e thirty-five 

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m 35f "y 11 "SE vm 

GRADES Spelling " 50 woRps ^ 



Page thirty-six 



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LI5T -J- 




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90 



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Pa^e thirty-seven 



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INIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 

THIRD GRADE 



* * 



***** 



25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100 
FOURTH GRADE 



* * 

* * * * * 

***** 

* * * * * * 



40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 
FIFTH GRADE SIXTH GRADE 



* * * 



* * * * 



65 70 75 80 85 90 95 
SEVENTH GRADE 



75 80 85 90 95. 100 
EIGHTH GRADE 



* * * 



* * 



* * 



* *. 



85 9D 95 100 



85 90 95 100 

Each dot represents the fall median of some town or 
city, and each asterisk represents the spring median of some. 
town or cily. 

Page thirty-eight 

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65 

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65 

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80 
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GRADE Vm 



3o//d Line - Fa// Scores 
Broken L/r>e - Spr/ng Scores 



3P^LUN6 



Page thirty-nine 

lUMiimiiiiimimimmiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiim tiiiiii niii iiiiiiiiimmmiimmiiiimii 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii 

IX. REPORT ON READING. 

The Tests. Reading test Beta I was given in the fall and 
Beta II in May. These tests are supposed to be of equal diffi- 
culty. Previous experience with these two tests had given the 
writer the impression that these tests were somewhat defective 
in two particulars, that the section scored 30 was harder than 
the section scored 40 and that Beta II was more difficult than 
Beta I. Both of these impressions were thoroughly confirmed 
in the present study. There was a larger percentage of error 
on section scored 30 than on section scored 40 and in spite of 
the training the children had received from October to May there 
was a very general and noticeable decline in scores in the lower 
grades. These data indicate that a restandardization of Beta II 
should be made. The general findings of this study are not 
seriously impaired by this situation. 

Comments. The fifth and seventh grades show the greatest 
improvement. Tl has the best score (26.5) in the third grade, 
while the state score is 9.4. C13 has a score of 40 in the fourth 
grade, while the state score is 12.9. The fifth grade makes a big 
jump with a state score of 40.1, Cll being highest, with a score 
44.5. The highest score among the sixth grades was 52.2, made 
by C4, while the state score is 45.1. TIO made a score of 60 in 
the seventh grade, T9 and Til tying for second place with 56.5, 
while the state score was 49.4. In the eighth grade we find 
CIO leading, with 61.9, followed closely by TIO, score 60, while 
the state score is 52.4. 

Range. Just a word as to range may be of interest, and 
the following table by grades, showing minimum and maximum 
scores, may be valuable : 



Grade 


T. or C. 


Minimum 


T. or C. 


Maximum 


Range 


Third 


TU 
Til 
T13 
C 3 
C 5 
T 9 


2.0 
8.5 
10.9 
14.2 
44.6 
40. 


T 1 
C13 
Cll 
C13 
TIO 
CIO 


26.1 

40. 

44.5 

50.8 

60. 

61.9 


24.1 


Fourth 


31.5 


Fifth 


33.6 


Sixth 


36.6 


Seventh 


15.4 


Eighth 


21 9 







As in the fall there is a general upward trend in the mini- 



Page forty 



llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIII 



iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiuiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiitiiiiiiil 

mum and maximum scores made throughout the grades. 

Conclusions. Some very interesting conclusions may be 
drawn from the table by a little study ; for instance C4, sixth 
grade, is reading with practically as good understanding as the 
average eighth grade, C13 and Tl better than the average seventh 
grade. TIO, seventh and eighth grades, are reading equally 
intelligently and among the best in the state, C4, C9, Tl, T9, 
TIO and Til, seventh grades, are reading as well as the average 
eighth grade in the state. T9, eighth grade, is reading no better 
than the average fifth grade, and C5, C8 and T2, seventh grades, 
are about on a par with the average sixth grade. 

A study of the papers themselves reveals some very sur- 
prising conditions, the most striking being that many pupils in 
the higher grades, that is fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth, seem 
to read with such little thought or understanding, that the 
answers are often ridiculous. It certainly seems as though a 
great deal more time could be expended very profitably in silent, 
rapid reading for understanding. After leaving school a large 
percentage of our information is gained directly through news- 
papers, magazines, books, etc., and unless we are able to read 
intelligently and comprehensively we shall be in no condition 
to attain exact information upon world affairs or to do our part 
in molding public thought. The methods employed in teaching 
silent reading need a searching study and radical revision. 



Page forty-one 

IlllllllllllllllllllllllllliilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllillllllllllUlllllllllllllllilllllllilllllllllllllllllllllll 



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60 



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40 



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Page forty-two 



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Page jorty-three 

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Page forty-four 



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X. REPORT ON ARITHMETIC. 

The Courtis Standard tests in the four fundamental opera- 
tions in arithmetic have been used very extensively and are, 
perhaps, the best known of all standard tests. These tests were 
given in the cities and towns of South Dakota both in the fall 
and in the spring, the results being given in the following tables 
and graphs. 

Comments and Recommendations. No fair and complete 
comparison can be made with the norms of Kansas,* whose 
results were gained by the use of tests given in midyear, but the 
Indianaf norms are May scores, and so it is fair to South Dakota 
schools to say that they are ahead in both speed and accuracy 
in all grades. 

The showing made by the state as a whole is very gratifying. 
Courtis Standards have been thought to be very high, almost 
unattainable in fact, but if as great progress is made in addition 
(which is the poorest) in the coming year as was made in the 
period between the October and May tests of last year, all except 
the eighth grade will be above the standard for speed, and will 
be rather well up in accuracy as well. 

The showing is a trifle better in subtraction, the sixth grade 
being the only one below standard to any noticeable degree, 
while the seventh is actually a little above. Accuracy is much 
more creditable, and equal progress during next year will put 
all grades up to a 100 per cent accuracy, the ultimate mark. 

In multiplication the fifth and sixth grades are slightly below 
standard, and the seventh and eighth are above, while equal 
development of accuracy will put all grades near 90 per cent, 
which is creditable. 

In division the state is well up in speed and accuracy, all 
grades being close to or above the standard for speed, while 
equal development of accuracy will raise all grades to the 100 
per cent mark. 

For the state as a whole addition needs most care. The rec- 

* Monroe, W. S.: "A report of the use of the Courtis Standard research tests in 
Arithmetic in 24 cities." Bureau of Educational Measurements and Standards. 
4 No. 8, p. 94. State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas. 

t Haggerty, M. E. : "Arithmetic, a co-operative study in educational measurements." 
University of Indiana Studies. Bulletin 27, 1915, 385-508. 

Page forty-five 

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Illlllllllllllllll Mill IllllllllnilllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII III IIIIIIIIMIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIMII 

ord in both speed and accuracy is here the farthest from the 
standard set by Courtis. 

Addition. A study of the tables will reveal many most 
interesting conditions, only a few of which may here be men- 
tioned. Til, fifth grade, addition, was lowest in speed in the 
fall, and in the spring was highest, while at the same time it 
made good progress in accuracy, although it did not rise to the 
state median. Progress in both speed and accuracy looks well, 
inasmuch as it shows that neither is permitted to suffer for the 
sake of the other. On the other hand, C13 made a little progress 
in speed, but fell decidedly below its fall record for accuracy, 
showing merely a change of emphasis, though its accuracy 
record is still above the state median. C6 is up to standard in 
speed and above the state median in accuracy, a good showing. 
C3 is best in accuracy, in spite of the fact that it was below 
the state median in the fall, and has likewise made some progress 
in speed, though not as much as might be desired. C9 deserves 
notice as being about as accurate as the state as a whole, and 
above the state median in speed. Among the sixth grades sev- 
eral deserve special notice. T13, median speed, accuracy about 
82; Til, speed above state and accuracy above state median; 
TIO, median speed, accuracy above state median; T9, gain in 
speed, loss in accuracy, still below fall median in accuracy, but 
a little above state median in speed; Tl, wonderful progress in 
both speed and accuracy, in fall way below median, now almost 
up to median accuracy and up to Courtis Standard in speed ; 
C8 developed a speed greater than the Courtis Standard, but is 
low in accuracy, though still above median ; C6 has made the 
same progress in speed and accuracy as has the state as a whole, 
above median to some extent in both characteristics ; C5 is now 
very little better than the state median for last fall. In the 
seventh grades T13 is sacrificing speed to accuracy, while Til is 
sacrificing accuracy for speed ; TIO deserves notice, as it has 
made remarkable progress in both speed and accuracy, being 
first in the state in both speed and accuracy among the seventh 
grades ; T2 is sacrificing speed for accuracy to too great an extent ; 
C9 deserves notice, being above standard in speed and above 
median in accuracy ; C8 has too high an accuracy for its speed, 
being second in state in accuracy, but below the state fall median 

Page forty-six 

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in speed ; C6 again makes progress corresponding to that of state 
median ; likewise C5 ; C4 is up to Courtis Standard in speed and 
above median in accuracy, making very good progress; CI has 
sacrificed speed for accuracy too much. C8 and TIO, eighth 
grade, deserve notice, because they are up to Courtis Standard 
in accuracy ; TIO is also above Courtis Standard for speed, but 
C8 is a trifle below the median for the state in speed. C9 has 
a very good record, as has Til; C4 is doing good work; C5 is 
no better in speed (below state median for fall) than it was 
last fall, and shows a lesser degree of accuracy, it being the only 
city to drop in accuracy. C13 is doing good work; CI is up well 
in accuracy, but low in speed. 

Subtraction. There are several cities deserving notice among 
the fifth grades. CI, below the fall state median in speed, came 
up to Courtis Standard, and leads the cities in accuracy ; C6 is up 
to standard in speed and above median for accuracy. C8 is sacri- 
ficing speed too much ; C9 is above Courtis Standard in speed 
and above the median for accuracy; T2 is in excellent condi- 
tion; T9 needs work in accuracy; TIO ranks first in speed and 
is almost up to the median in accuracy ; T9 is in the best condition 
of any places here represented. 

Among the sixth grades CI is sacrificing speed for accuracy 
a little too much ; C3 needs a great deal more work in speed ; 
C5 is as efficient both in speed and accuracy as the state was 
last fall ; C6 is in excellent condition ; C8 is well up, as is also 
C9; CIO is progressing well; C13 is sacrificing speed for accuracy 
to a greater extent than any other city. Tl has made good 
progress, but T2 is low; TIO has done good work; and Til is 
well up with the state. 

The following sixth grade classes need work in speed, C3, 
C5, C8, Cll, Tl, T2 and Til; C5, C7, C9, Tl, T9, Til and T13 
in accuracy; CI is in excellent condition, as are also C6, CIO 
and TIO. 

Among the eighth grade classes, C8, C13 and TIO are in 
excellent condition, while CI, C3, C5, C6, CIO, Tl, T2 and T13 
need work in speed in varying degrees, and C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, 
C9, CIO, Cll, Tl, T9 and Til can well stand some work on 
accuracy. 

Multiplication. The following fifth grades are in good con- 

Page forty-seven 

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IIIMIIIIMnillllllllllNtlllllllllllllllllinMlllllllrllllHIfllllllMMIIIIIIIIMHIIIIIIIMIIinllllllltllllllllMIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIirtlllllllllll 

dition: C4, C5, C9, T2, TIO, Til and T13. C3, CIO, C13 and 
Tl need to do their work more rapidly; C7, CIO and T9 ought to 
be more accurate ; C5 is very low and more work is needed, while 
C13 merely changed the emphasis from accuracy to speed, but 
shows no real progress. 

Most of the sixth grades, C4, C8, CIO, Cll, C13, T2, TIO 
and Til are in good condition. CI and C3 need more work in 
speed; C9 and T13 need to work more accurately; C5 is low in 
both speed and accuracy, the record showing no progress, only 
change in emphasis; likewise C6. Tl needs work in both speed 
and accuracy, as does T9. 

The seventh grades show up well as follows: CI, C4, C6, 
C7, C8, C9, CIO, C13, TIO, Til and T13 are in good condition; 
C3, C9 and T2 need speed work, while C5, Tl and T9 are 
inaccurate. 

The majority of eighth grades, C4, C8, C13, T9, TIO and 
Til, are in excellent condition; C7, C9, CIO and Cll are doing 
good work; CI and T2.show change of emphasis, but little 
progress; C3 needs more drill; Tl and T13 need to work more 
rapidly. 

Division. Among the fifth grades the towns stand up better 
than the cities, Tl, TIO, Til and T13 being in splendid condi- 
tion, though T9, perfectly accurate, is unreasonably slow. C6 
and C9 are doing splendid work; C8 and Cll are doing well. 
The following need work in speed and accuracy : C3, C4, C5 and 
C13; CI is slow, and CIO is inaccurate. 

The following sixth grades are in splendid condition: C4, 
C6, C8, C9, CIO and TIO; CI and C13 are very slow, and Cll 
needs a little speed drill. C3, C5, C7 , Tl, T2 and T9 need work 
for speed and accuracy; Til is inaccurate, though above Courtis 
Standard in speed. 

The seventh grades are fairly well up in accuracy. CI, C7, 
C8, CIO, C13, TIO, Til and T13 are in excellent condition; C4, 
T9 and Til are inaccurate; C9 and Til are slow, while C5 and 
Tl need work for speed and accuracy. 

The eighth grades are doing very accurate work, Til being 
the only one noticeably low in accuracy as well as speed. CI, 
C4, C5, C9 and Tl need some speed work. 

Page forty-eight 

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Page forty-nine 

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Page fifty-one 

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iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiMiiiiiiiiwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMii 



SUMMARY OF SOUTH DAKOTA STANDARDS. 
Handwriting. 

(Quality measured by Ayres Scale.) 





3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Quality 


36 
33 


34 
56 


35 

47 


36 
65 


37 
62 


41 

72 


43 
71 


43 
81 


47 
76 


49 
84 


49 

84 


51 


Speed 


88 



Spelling. 

(Words from Ayres Scale, Columns J, M, Q.) 



Oct, 



May 



Oct. 



May 



Oct. 



May 



Oct. 



May 



Oct, 



May 



Oct. 



May 



South Dakota . 
Ayres 



77 96 
J84 



100 100 
J94 



91 96 

M92 



95 100 
M96 



94 99 
Q92 



100 100 
Q96 



Reading. 

(Scores for Beta I in October and Beta II in May.) 





3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


Oct. 


May 


South Dakota. . . 


20 


9 


23 


13 


31 


40 


40 


45 


42 


49 


46 


52 



Arithmetic. 

(Scores for Courtis, Series B.) 



Oct. 



May 



Oct. May 



Oct. 



May 



Oct. 



May 



Addition — Speed 

Addition — Accuracy 

Subtraction — Speed 

Subtraction — Accuracy . . . 
Multiplication — Speed. . . . 
Multiplication — Accuracy . 

Division — Speed 

Division — Accuracy 



5.6 
40.3 

6.4 
54.0 

5.5 
51.1 

3.5 
39.4 



7.5 
62.3 

8.8 
77.8 

7.5 
68.6 

5.6 
70.6 



6.3 
48.6 

7.5 
65.5 

6.7 
63.2 

4.1 
56.5 



8.3 
68.8 

9.5 
85.6 

8.5 
74.5 

8.0 
83.5 



7.5 
54.0 

8.8 
74.6 

8.1 
67.9 

5.6 
71.1 



10.0 
69.8 
12.1 
89.0 
10.7 
78.9 
9.9 
88.7 



60.1 
10.6 
77.6 

9.7 
73.5 

8.3 
82.6 



10.1 
73.5 
12.9 
91.5 
11.9 
81.8 
12.2 
91.4 



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XI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From the foregoing it is very evident that the schools as 
a whole are not making a consistent study of the achievements 
and abilities of the children in the various subjects in the several 
grades. Some teachers are doing excellent work in all subjects, 
some are doing good work in certain subjects, but poor work 
in others, and others are doing poor work in all subjects. Until 
they are confronted with the results of standard objective tests, 
they will have no way of measuring their strengths and weak- 
nesses. They will not know where to place emphasis. 

The superintendent would do well to make a series of graphs 
of the results in his city or town, and then study these together 
with his teachers. From such study the places for emphasis 
would be very apparent. 

Second, the writer would suggest an analysis of the time 
element of instruction. An analysis should be made of the time 
devoted to each subject and its distribution in the program. 
It should be remembered that 50 minutes per week for a subject 
will give different results if given in a single period, if given in 
two 25 minute periods, or if given in five 10 minute periods. 

Third, a study should be made of the methods in use in each 
subject. By carefully conducted measurements the methods 
should be tested for results. 

Fourth, this survey is but the beginning of a study. There 
should be a constant survey of conditions. The norms to be 
attained should be clearly known by each teacher, at least the 
norms which have been attained in other schools and systems, 
and frequent measures taken to note where the pupils stand in 
relation to such norms. Only by a process of constant evaluation 
is any progress possible in a consciously directed proceeding. 
This evaluation should be objective, impersonal, definite, and 
understandable. 

Finally, the writer would not have anyone think that he 
entertains the idea that the data and criteria of this study are 
absolute. No pretense is made of perfect accuracy and finality. 
This is equally true of other tests unless often repeated. In 
measuring an educational attainment many things are often 
measured besides the one element whose measure is sought. The 

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conclusions which this study reveals, striking though they are 
in many particulars, are only tentative and symptomatic. They 
are highly indicative of conditions, they are highly suggestive of 
remedies, but, after all, they are only indicative and suggestive. 

XII. CORRELATIONS. 

It has been found in numerous studies* of teachers' marks 
that students who get high marks in one subject usually get 
high marks in all other subjects and those who rank high in 
one grade tend to rank high in ^11 other grades, even on through 
college. An examination of the correlations between the dif- 
ferent subjects in the various grades in this present study is 
somewhat disappointing. The correlations in many cases are 
little more than those of chance. A grade in a city which ranks 
high in reading is almost as likely to rank low in spelling, writing 
or arithmetic. A study of individual children in a given class 
would doubtless show more persistently high positive correla- 
tions. The following table shows the principal correlations 
computed. 

Correlations Between City and Town (State) Medians. 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 






Reading and Writing (Quality) .... 

Spelling and Writing (Quality) 

Spelling and Reading 


.04 
.30 
.39 


.46 
.42 
.50 


.59 
.28 
.64 
.161 


.06 
.06 
.04 

.142 


.13 
.34 

.27 
.283 


.30 
.14 

.58 


Reading and Arithmetic 


.03* 











1. Addition, speed. 

3. Multiplication, speed. 



2. Subtraction, accuracy. 
4. Division, accuracy. 



* Dearborn, W. F. : "The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School and in the 
University," Bull. 312, Univ. of Wisconsin, 1909. 
Jones, A. L. : "The Value of College Entrance Examinations," Educational Review, 
Sept., 1914. 

Kelley, T. L. : Educational Guidance. 

Lowell, A. L. : "College Studies and the Professional School," Harvard Graduates' 

Magazine, Dec, 1910; Educational Review, Oct., 1911. 
Miles, W. R. : "Comparison of Elementary and High School Grades," Iowa Studies in 

Education, I, 1. 

Nicholson, F. W. : "Success in College and in After Life," School and Society, Aug. 14, 
1915. 

Smith, F. C: "A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College Entrance," Uni- 
versity of Iowa Studies in Education, N. S., 51, Dec, 1912. 

Thorndike, E. L.: "Educational Diagnosis," Science, Jan. 24, 1913. "The Future of 
the College Entrance Examination Board," Educational Review, May, 1906. Also 
Science, Vol. 23, p. 289. "The Permanence of Interests and Their Relation to 
Abilities," Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1912. 



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Relation of Speed and Accuracy. As has already been 
shown, a low but positive correlation was found between speed 
and accuracy in the arithmetical processes in the different grades 
as shown in both fall and spring tests. The children who are 
rapid in their calculations have a well defined tendency to be 
more accurate than the children who are slow. 

The following question seemed worthy of an answer : If 
the pupils develop an increase in speed will they grow corre- 
spondingly more accurate? Also, if they develop greater accu- 
racy will they develop a corresponding increase in rate? The 
converse of these questions will naturally be answered in the 
answers to these questions. 

The answers to the foregoing questions may be found by 
two kinds of studies, a. An experiment under controlled condi- 
tions in which emphasis was placed upon speed in the teaching 
directions in one group and emphasis upon accuracy in another 
group was made by Dr. M. E. Haggerty* with the result that 
with emphasis upon one or the other of these attributes, though 
one may be rapidly increased, the other will remain fairly con- 
stant. An emphasis upon speed will produce speedier work but 
the percentage of accuracy will remain fairly stable, and an 
emphasis upon accuracy will result in greater accuracy but will 
not greatly affect the speed, b. In the present study no attempt 
was made to superinduce an attitude directed toward increasing 
only one of these attributes. A study of the gains in speed com- 
pared with the gains in accuracy results in the following coef- 
ficients of correlation : 

Relation of Gain in Speed to Gain in Accuracy. 



Addition 


Subtraction 


Multiplication 


Division 


Grade 


r 


Grade 


r 


Grade 


r 


Grade 


r 


5 


.03 


5 


.10 


5 


.22 


5 


.21 


6 


.30 


6 


.12 


6 


.47 


6 


— .39 


7 


.02 


7 


— .06 


7 


.59 


7 


— .10 


8 


.02 


8 


— .04 


8 


.06 


8 


.14 



Save in multiplication the coefficients are those of chance 
and indicate that growth in ability to solve problems quickly is 



From class room notes. The study has not been published. 



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no index to growth in ability to solve them accurately. While 
the coefficients for multiplication are all strongly positive no 
good case can be made out from these data, in the light of the 
results in the other processes. There seems to be no inherent 
reason why gain in speed in multiplication should be indicative 
of gain in accuracy in that operation any more than in the other 
operations. 

Perhaps, one should not speak too dogmatically on this sub- 
ject, however. It should be remembered that the foregoing 
results are based upon a growth of the seven months of the 
school year from the end of the first month to the beginning of 
the ninth month and that several thousand children contributed 
to them. The results indicate an outstanding difference in case 
of multiplication and it is possible that a further study may 
explain them rather than explain them away. The data of this 
study are not adequate for this task. 

Relation of Speed and Quality. The study of handwriting 
has revealed no positive correlations between speed and quality 
of handwriting, and has shown no constant correlation between 
gain in speed and gain in quality. The latter fact is eas,51y 
explained in the suggestion which was sent to the teachers after 
the first test to the effect that their children were too slow — 
were drawing letters rather than writing them. This conclusion 
is different from that of Haggerty in his study of the effect of 
suggestion upon gain in speed and accuracy in arithmetic. In 
the latter case gain in one respect did not affect the status in 
the other. In case of handwriting the suggestion of emphasis 
upon speed seems to have had the effect of causing an actual 
sacrifice of quality for speed in many schools. These results 
throw open a great field for teacher study and much experi- 
mentation needs to be done in different subjects and aspects of 
subjects in the several grades. It is apparent that in suggestion 
the teacher has a powerful instrument. 

Relation Between Gain in Speed and Gain in Quality. 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 






r 


*42. 


— .09 


— .34 


.11* 


.32 


13* 







* Net loss in quality, net gain in speed. 

Page sixty 



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Relation of Time Given to Subject and Gain. A very impor- 
tant pedagogical question is raised when one asks, "Does an 
increase in the time devoted to a subject yield a proportional 
increase in skill in that subject?" The answer to this question 
was sought in two ways in this study. 

a. By a study of the relation of the scores made by classes 
in a grade to the times devoted to the subject. That is to say, 
do the cities and towns devoting most time to a subject tend 
to make the highest scores in the subject? An examination of 
the following table will readily show that no such positive cor- 
relation exists. It does not follow from this that the time 
devoted to a subject is of no consequence or even of slight conse- 
quence. The conclusion to be drawn from this fact is that 
within the limits of time devoted to a subject in the towns and 
cities of South Dakota there is not enough difference in out- 
comes to counterbalance other factors which affect the teaching 
process. The superintendent or supervisor cannot say, "Go to 
now, I will increase the time devoted to a subject and get a 
proportional increase in the educational outcome." Within cer- 
tain limits of time there are apparently other factors of such 
paramount importance that even doubling the time may produce 
no appreciable increase. 

Relation of Time to Score. 

(Spring scores used.) 



Grade 


*Add. r 


Sub. r 


Mult, r 


Div. r 


Spell, r 


Read, r 


Speed 
Writ, r 


Quality 
Writ, r 


3 










.43 
.23 
.31 
.03 
— .41 
.07 


.30 
.12 
.06 
.25 

— .05 

— .45 


.19 
.16 
.06 
.13 
.28 
.18 


.16 


4 










— .08 


5 
6 

7 
8 


.36 

— .23 

— .02 
.06 


.06 

— .15 

— .06 
.03 


.08 
.27 
.05 
.42 


— .16 
.18 
.04 
.30 


.29 

.08 

— .13 

.09 



Arithmetical accuracies. 

A study of the table showing time and proficiency distribu- 
tions reveals some marked anomalies. Cll gives half the time 
to third grade spelling that Tl gives and yet shows a better 
score, a gives 125 minutes per week to third grade spelling 
and the pupils score 51.0 per cent on the 50 words, whereas Cll 
gives but 75 minutes per week and scores 68.5 per cent. A 



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great many similar anomalies will be found in the data. Com- 
parisons between schools in this way, however, may not be 
altogether fair as the time indicated in the table does not repre- 
sent the incidental teaching of a subject; for example, the teach- 
ing of spelling in the reading and other lessons. The records, 
too, are for but one year and the pupils' abilities have been 
acquired during several years when, perhaps, the program showed 
a different time distribution. It is of great importance for a 
superintendent or teacher to have some such diagnostic instru- 
ments as standardized tests and measurements to detect uneco- 
nomic time distributions. 

Similar results have been found in other studies of this kind, 
such as those in Wisconsin, conducted by the State Department 
of Public Instruction. Theisen* draws the following pedagog- 
ical conclusions from his study of the time devoted to spelling 
and the average spelling scores : 

"In Table 16, counties 3 and 7 give more time to spelling 
than any of the others. Do they make the best showing on the 
test? County 3 makes the best score in the third and fourth 
grades. In the fifth grade, its score is low, but still superior to 
that of the other counties. On the whole, this county pays high 
for results which, with two exceptions, are not above the expected 
average. In county 7, no grade reaches Ayres standard. This 
county likewise pays high for what it gets. In county 5 spelling 
is taught in connection with reading through grade five. The 
unsatisfactory results in this county may be noted from the fact 
that it makes the poorest score in four of the six grades tested. 
The table indicates further that the best seventh and eighth grade 
scores were made in counties devoting not more than ten minutes 
per day to spelling. 

"Table 17 gives the time devoted to spelling and the average 
scores made in ten first-class state graded schools (i. e., schools 
with three or more grades). 

"Here again it is evident that more time does not necessarily 
guarantee better results. The best scores in the three upper 



W. W. Theisen, "The Use of Some Standard Tests," Bulletin No. 1, for 1916-17, 
pp. 33-34. 



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grades were made on a seventy-five minute per week schedule. 
The best scores in the third, fourth, and fifth grades were made 
in schools giving one hundred minutes per week. In grades 
three and four, however, they are only slightly superior to the 
averages made in schools in which spelling receives only one-half 
as much time." 

b. A study of the relation of the time given to a subject and 
the gain in proficiency. Here again the range in difference in 
time seems not to have been sufficient to show marked tendencies 
in results although the range was often equal to or greater than 
the lowest unit, e. g., handwriting deviated from 45 minutes to 
125 minutes per week in the same grade. It sometimes happens 
that the school giving' the greatest amount of time to a subject 
shows during the school year an actual decline in score. Thus 
TIO devotes 125 minutes to handwriting per week in the fourth 
grade. The quality score of the children in that grade in October 
was 42.0 on the Ayres scale, better than the average of the state — 
indeed, but two cities in the state equalled it. In the test given 
the following May the same children scored only 33.3, being 
lower than the average of the state — indeed, the very lowest in 
the state at that time. In the meantime the fifth grades in the 
same town were giving slightly less time to the subject (though 
more than the median for the state) and brought up their quality 
score from 39.0% in the fall to 57.5% in the spring. 

Another factor tends to prevent any strong positive correla- 
tion between such an important factor as time and the teaching 
outcome. The distribution of pupils' achievement scores in a 
grade spreads over the standards for several grades. In a fourth 
grade class in handwriting are often found pupils having hand- 
writing abilities covering all of the grades of the elementary 
school. This heterogeneous distribution of pupils tends to nullify 
the refinements of measures. A yardstick may be sufficiently 
accurate for measuring sticks of unassorted lengths, whereas a 
micrometer or vernier scale is needed for measuring those of 
almost uniform length. 

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Relation o£ Time to Gain. 



Grade 


*Add. r 


Sub. r 


Mult, r 


Div. r 


Spell, r 


Read, r 


Speed 
Writ, r 


Quality 
Writ, r 


3 










.46 
.55 
.01 


— .19 

— .04 

— .30 


— .25 

— .09 
.09 


— .19 


4 










— .35 


5 


.29 


— .10 


— .15 


— .13 


.72 


6 


—.23 


— .31 


— .10 


.15 


— .15 


.34 


— .10 


.13 


7 


.18 


— .51 


— .35 


.44 


— .28 


— .20 


.18 


.24 


8 


.26 


.02 


.52 


— .30 


.05 


— .32 


.07 


— .15 



* Accuracy. 

Relation of Pupil Gain and Teacher Training. This study 
was not at all satisfactory and conclusive as the training of the 
teachers throughout the cities and towns varies so slightly, the 
medians ranging from one to two years beyond a four-year high 
school course. Hence very little reliance can be placed upon the 
coefficients of correlation. Had the study been extended to 
cover rural schools as well as city and town schools the results 
might have been significant. The amount of teacher training in 
cities is slightly higher than that in towns, but the difference is 
apparently not sufficient to show in measureable teaching out- 
comes. 

Pupil Gain and Teacher Training. 



Grade 


Add.r 


Sub. r 


Mult, r 


Div. r 


Spell, r 


Read, r 


Writ, r 


3 










.06 

— .04 

.18 


— .12 
.11 

.27 


14 


4 










— 24 


5 


.00 


.11 


— .16 


.21 


.07 


6 


.06 


.20 


—.11 


.23 


.01 


— .30 


— .19 


7 


— .10 


.12 


.15 


— .14 


.28 


— .13 


.26 


8 


.13 


— .06 


.20 


.02 


— .12 


.09 


.16 



Other Correlations. Studies were also made as to relation 
between teaching experience and objective results of pupil tests 
and between experience in the present position and results of 
tests. Here again there was not sufficient variability to show any 
positive relations ; at any rate the coefficients of correlation were 
nearly those of chance. 



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A more searching inquiry covering a series of years with the 
same pupils is necessary to determine the effect of teacher train- 
ing, teacher experience, and teacher experience in the same posi- 
tion. Since pupils pass from teacher to teacher by semi-annual 
or annual promotions, it is not easy, without a careful follow-up 
method, to disentangle the educational outcomes attributable to 
the several teachers and to the several types of teachers classified 
on basis of training and experience. So far as these factors are 
concerned it is apparent that the present study is simply a revela- 
tion of the limitations of the method employed and the measures 
used in the given field. 

A study of the effect of the number of pupils per teacher 
was also made with equally unsatisfactory results. The cities 
having the greatest disparity were C9, with an average number of 
27.6 pupils per teacher, and CIO, with an average number of 39.1 
pupils per teacher. CIO, however, shows not the slightest inferi- 
ority in the several tests, taken as a whole, although these cities 
give a very nearly equal time to the different subjects. 




\£^y' 



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XIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

General. 

Alexander, C. "Standard tests as an aid in Supervision." Am. Sch. Bd. 

Jour., 54: 1917, 17-18, 66-67, 69. 
Ayres, L. P. "Making education definite." Second Ind. Conf. Ed. 

Meas., 13: 1915, pp. 85-96. 

"The measurements of educational processes and products." Supra. 

pp. 127-133. 
Bagley, C. W. The need of standards for measuring progress and 

results. Proc. Na. Ed. As., 1912, 634-639. 
Ballou, F. W. The function of a department of educational investigation 

and measurement in a school system. Sc. Soc, 1: Feb. 6, 19J.S, 

181-190. 

Improving instruction through educational measurement. Ed. Adm., 

2: June, 1916, 354-367; also Na. Ed. As. Bu., 4: 1916, 196-203. 
Birch, T. B. Standard tests and scales of measurement. Ps. CI., 10: 

April, 1916, 49-57. 
Bliss, D. C. School measurements and school administration. Ed. 

Adm., l:.Feb., 1915, 77-88. 

The application of standard measurements to school administration. 

Fifteenth Yb. Na. Soc, Pt. I, 1916, 69-78. 

Standard tests and a basal method of teaching reading. El. Sch. 

Jr. 18: 662-79. 
Bobbitt, F. Some general principles of management applied to the 

problems of city school systems. Twelfth Yb. Na. Soc. Pt. I, 

1913, 7-96. 

Plan for measuring educational efificiency in Bay City. El. Sch. 

Jr. 18: 343-56. 
Boston, Bulletins I and IV, Dept. of Ed. Invest, and Meas. 
Buckingham, B. R. Principles of scale derivation. Third Ind. Conf. 

Ed. Meas. 2: Feb., 1917, pp. 48-84. 
Courtis, S. A. The comparative test as an educational ruler. Am. Ed. 

IS: Sept., 1911, 13-18. 

Objective standards as a means of controlling instruction and 

economizing time. Sc. Soc, 1: Mar. 27, 1915, 433-436. 

Supervisory control by means of objective standards. Second 

Indiana Conf. Mes., 13: Oct., 1915, 37-68. 

Educational diagnosis. Second Indiana Conf. Mes., 13, 1915, 135-171; 

also Ed. Adm., 1: Feb., 1915, 89-116. 

Standardization of teachers' examinations. Proc. N. Ed. As., 1916: 

1078-1086. 

Courtis tests in arithmetic: value to superintendents and teachers. 

Fifteenth Yb. Na. Soc, Pt. I, 1916, 91-106. 
Cubberly, E. P. Standard tests in the work of school administration: 

round table. Third Indiana Conf. Mes., 2, 1917, 21-34. 

Significance of educational measurements. Third Indiana Conf, 

Mes., 2: 1917, 6-20. 
Gray, W. S. Use of tests in improving instruction. El. Sch. Jr. 19, 

121-42. 
Haggerty, M. E. Some uses of educational measurements. Sc. Soc. 4: 

Nov. 18, 1916, 762-771. 

Measurement and diagnosis as aids to supervision. Sc. Soc, 6: Sept. 

8, 1917, 271-285. 
Hall-Quest, A. L. Measuring the ultimate product. Sc. Soc, 1: May 

29, 1915, 767-77Z. 
Kansas City, Mo., Research Bulletin No. 2. 
Kelly, F. J. Teachers' marks: their variability and standardization. Teh. 

Page sixty-six 

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Coll. Con. Ed., 66: 1914, pp. 139. 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. Measurements, standards and teaching. Sc. Soc, 1: 

Feb. 20, 1915, 278-281. 
Lane, H. A. Standard tests as an aid to supervision. El. Sc. J., 15: 

March, 1915, 378-386. 

Littell, H. V. Testing- efficiency in schools. Proceedings 28th Annual 
Meeting Associated Academic Principals and Council of Elementary 
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Manahan, J. L. Standard educational tests and educational administra- 
tion. High School Quarterly, 5: July, 1917, 247-250. 

Monroe, DeVoss, and Kelley. Educational Tests and Measurements. 

Monroe, W. S. Standard tests and their uses. Teh. 1: Nov. 15, 1914. 
9-14. 

Nutt, H. W. Rhythm in Handwriting. El. Sch. Jr., Mar., 1919. 

Rugg, H. O. Statistical methods applied to education. 

Starch, D. Standard tests as aids in the classification and promotion of 
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Strayer, G. D. The use of tests and scales of measurement in the 
administration of schools. Proc. Na. Ed. As., 1915, 579-582.. 
Measuring results in education. J. Ed. Ps. 2: 1911, 3-10. 

Strayer and Norsworthy. How to teach. 

Swift, G. C. Standard tests for teachers' use. Sch. Sc. 8: 117-18. 

Theisen, W. W. The use of some standard tests for 1916-17, Bulletin 
No. 1, State Dept. Pub. Inst., Madison, Wisconsin. 

Thompson, J. E. Educational Measurements. Sc. Home Ed.: Nov., 
1916, 69-72. 

Thorndike, E. L. The measurement of educational products. Sc. R., 20: 
May, 1912, 289-299. 

Units and scales for measuring educational products. Proc. Con- 
ference on Educational Measurements, Indiana University Bulletin. 
12, No. 10, 1914, 128-141. 

Round Table: the use of the new educational scales in ordinary 
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Woody, C. Tests and measures in the school room and their value to 
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Arithmetic. 

Ashbaugh, E. J. The arithmetical skill of Iowa school children. Un. 
Iowa Extn. Bu., 24: Nov., 1916, pp. 63. 

Ballard, P. B. Norms of performance in the fundamental processes of 
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Ballou, F. W. Educational standards and educational measurements, 
with particular reference to standards in the four fundamentals of 
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Bell, J. C. A class experiment in arithmetic. T. Ed. Ps., 5: Oct.. 1914, 
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Provisional minimum standards in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
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Nov., 1912, 485-492; Dec, 1912, 561-570. 

Buckingham, B. R. The Courtis tests in the schools of New York City. 
J. Ed. Ps. 5: Apr., 1914, 199-214. 

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Childs, H. G. A half-year's progress in the achievement of one school 
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1910, and Mar., 1911, 171-185 and 360-370. 

Standard Scores in arithmetic El. Sc. J., 12: Nov., 1911, 127-137. 
Courtis, S. A. The Courtis tests in arithmetic Final Report Com- 
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Courtis, S. A. The reliability, of single measurements with standard 
tests. El. Sc. J., 13: March and June, 1913, 326-345 and 486-504. 
Third, fourth and fifth annual accounting of the Courtis Standard 
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in relation to standard scores and summary of tabulations. Bulletin 
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Arithmetic Tests, Series A. and Series B. Detroit, Mich. 

Davies, G. R. Elements of arithmetical ability. J. Ed. Ps., 5: Mar., 1914, 
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Aug. 11, 1917, 175-177. 

Gray, P. L. Norms of performance in the fundamental arithmetical 
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Green, J. A. Normal performances in fundamental arithmetical 
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Haggerty, M. E. Arithmetic: a co-operative study in educational 
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Studies in arithmetic. Indiana Un. Sd., 3, Sept., 1916, pp. 109. 

Hahn, H. H. and Thorndike, E. L. Some results in addition under 
school conditions. J. Ed. Ps., 5: Feb., 1914, 65-84. 

Heilman, J. D. and Shultis, F. W. A study in addition. Research 
Bulletin No. 1, State Teachers' College of Colorado, Greeley, 1916. 

Hill, D. S. Measurements by the Courtis arithmetic tests. Annual 
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Hinkle, E. C. Tests for efficiency in arithmetic Educational Bi- 
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Experiments for efficiency in arithmetic. The Courtis tests. Edu- 
cational Bi-monthly, 8: Feb., 1914, 189-201. 

Jessup, W. A. Current practices and standards in arithmetic. Fourteenth 
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Jessup, W. A. and Coffman, L. D. The Supervision of Arithmetic. New 
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Mead, C. D. An Experiment in the Fundamentals. Yonkers, 1917. 



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Mead, C. D. and Sears, Isabel. Additive, subtractive, and multi- 
plicative division tested. J. Ed. Ps., 7: May, 1916, 261-270. 
Monroe, W. S. A report of the use of the Courtis Standard Research 

Tests in arithmetic in twenty-four cities. Kansas Bur. Mes., 4: 

No. 8, pp. 94. 
O'Hern, J. P. Practical application of standard tests in spelling, lan- 
guage, and arithmetic. 
Otis, A. S. and Davidson, P. E. The reliability of standard scores in 

adding ability. El. Sc. Teh., 13: Oct., 1912, 91-105. 
Phelps, C. L. A study of errors in tests of adding ability. El. Sc. Teh., 

14: Sept., 1913, 29-39. 
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1902 to June, 1903, 281-297, 437-452, 588-607. Reprinted in Scientific 

Management in Education, New York, 1913. 
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Smith, J. H. Individual variations in arithmetic. El. Sc. J., 17: Nov., 

1916, 195-200. 
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April, 1916, 213-222. 
Starch, D. and Elliott, E. C. Reliability of grading work in mathematics. 

Sc. R., 21: April, 1913, 254-259. 
Stone, C. W. Problems in the scientific study of the teaching of arith- 
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Arithmetical abilities and some factors determining them. Teh. 

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Taylor, E. H. A comparison of the arithmetical abilities of rural and 

city school children. J. Ed. Ps., 5: Oct., 1914, 461-466. 
Thorndike, E. L. Means of increasing efficiency in arithmetic. Indiana 

Un. Bu., 12: 1914, 9-25. 

The relation between speed and accuracy in addition. J. Ed. Ps., 5: 

Nov., 1914, 537. 

Measurements of ability to solve arithmetical problems. Pd. Se., 

21: Dec, 1914, 495-503. 

Practice in the case of addition. Am. J. Ps., 21 : 1910, 483. 
Todd, J. W. Preliminary Courtis tests in North Dakota. Sch. Sc, 9: 

65-68. 
Uhl, W. L. The use of standardized materials in arithmetic for 

diagnosing pupils' methods of work. El. Sc. J., 18: Nov., 1917, 215. 
Wood, E. R. Tests in efficiency in arithmetic. El. Sc J., 17: Feb., 1917. 

446-453. 
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Soc, 4: Aug. 19, 1916, 229-303. 

Measurements of Some Achievements in Arithmetic New York 

City, pp. 63. 

Arithmetic Scales. New York City. 
Zeidler, R. Tests of efficiency in the rural and village schools of Santa 

Clara, Cal. El. Sc J., 16: June, 1916, 542-555. 

Handwriting. 

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Division Bulletin No. 15, University of Iowa, March 1, 1916, pp. 24. 
Ayres, L. P. A Scale for Measuring the Quality of Handwriting of 

School Children. "Three Slant Edition." New York City, 1912. 

A scale for measuring the quality of handwriting of school children, 

Russell Sage Foundation, Bulletin E 113, 1912, pp. 16. 

A Measuring Scale for Handwriting: "Gettysburg Edition." New 

York City. 
Ballou, F. W. Penmanship. Bulletin No. IX, Dept. Ed. Invest, and 

Meas., Boston. 

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Boston, Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement. 

Penmanship. Determining the achievement of elementary school 

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Breed, F. S. and Culp, V. An application and critique of the Ayres' 

handwriting scale. Sc. Soc, 2: Oct., 30, 1915, 639-647. 

Note on the relation of legibility and form in handwriting. Sc. Soc, 

4: Dec. 2, 1916, 870-872. 
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Courtis, S. A. Courtis Standard Research Tests. Handwriting. Series 

W. Detroit, Mich. 
Freeman, F. N. Freeman's Handwriting Scale. Chicago, 111. Some 

practical studies of handwriting. El. Sc. J., 14: Dec, 1913, 167-179. 

Handwriting. Fourteenth Yb. Na. Soc, Ft. I, 1915, 61-77. 

An analytical scale for judging handwriting. El. Sc. J., 15: April, 

1915, 432-441. 
Freeman, F. N. Handwriting tests for use in school surveys. El. Sc. J., 

16: Feb., 1916, 299-301. 

Handwriting. Sixteenth Yb. Na. Soc. Pt. I, 1917, 60-72. 
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Gray, T. C. The training of judg^jient in the use of the Ayres' scale for 

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public schools of Dubuque, Iowa. Bureau of School Measurements, 

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El. Sc. J., 16: Feb., 1916, 302-315. 
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scales (containing a table of equivalent values in the two scales). 

North Carolina High School Bulletin, 7: Oct., 1916, 170-173. 
King, I. and Johnson, H. The writing abilities of the elementary and 

grammar school pupils of a city system measured by the Ayres 

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2: Oct., 1916, 493-502. 
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327-330. 
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Rusk, R. R. A class experiment in scoring handwriting. P. Ed. Ps., 5: 

Sept., 1914, 417-418. 
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21, 1916, 640-645. 
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445-464. 

The measurement of efficiency in writing. J. Ed. Ps., 6: Feb., 1915, 

106-114. 

Scale for measuring handwriting. Sch. Soc, 9: 154-158. 
Thorndike, E. L. Means of measuring school achievements in hand- 
writing. Ed. Adm., 1: May, 1915. 300-305. 

Handwriting. Teh. Coll. Rec, 2: March, 1-910, 1-93. 

Teachers' estimates of the quality of specimens of handwriting. 

Teh. Coll. Rec, 15: Nov., 1914, 279-291. 

Handwriting Scale for Grades 5 to 8. New York City. 
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11: June, 1911, 540-543. 

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Reading. 

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Standards in silent reading, with suggestions on how teachers may 

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reading. El. Sc. Teh., 14: June, 1914, 477-490. 

The measurement of ability to read. New Hampshire Department 

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Pt. I, 1915, 44-58. 

The problem of measuring ability in silent reading. Am. Sc. Bd. J., 

54: May, 1917, 17-18, 81. 
Gray, C. T. Types of reading ability as exhibited through tests and 

laboratory experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs, 

1, No. 5: Aug. 29, 1917, pp. 196. 
Gray, W. S. Methods of testing reading. El. Sc. T., 16: Jan., 1916, 

231-246 and Feb., 1916, 281-298. 

A co-operative studv in reading in eleven cities in northern Illinois. 

El. Sc. J., 17: Dec, "1916, 250-265. 

Studies of elementary school reading through standardized tests. 

Supplementary Educational Monographs, Chicago, 1917. I, pp. 157. 

Reading. Survey of St. Louis Public Schools, Vol. II. 
Haggerty, M. E. Scales for reading vocabulary of primary children. 

EI. Sc J., 17: Oct., 1916. 106-115. 

The ability to read: its measurement and some factors conditioning 

it. Indiana Un. Sd., 4: Jan., 1917, pp. 6i. 

Visual Vocabulary_ Scale and Reading Tests for the Understanding 

of Sentences. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 
Harris, J. H. and Anderson, H. W. Measuring primary reading in the 

Dubuque schools. Dubuque. 1916, pp. 23. ' 
Holmes, H. W., et al. Harvard Bulletin in Education, No. 5, June, 1917. 
Judd. C. H. Report of the committee on tests and standards of 

efficiency in schools and school systems: reading tests. Proc. Na. 

Ed. As.: 1915, 561-565. 

Reading. Fifteenth Yb. Na. Soc, Pt. T, 1916. 111-119. 
Kansas State Normal School, Bureau of Educational Measurements and 

Standards. Standardized Tests in Silent Reading. Emporia, Kan. 
Kelley, T. L. Thorndike's reading scale Alpha 2, adapted to individual 

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63-80. 

The Kansis silent reading test. Bulletin No. 7, Vol. IV, State 

Normal School, Emporia, Kansas. 
King, I. A comparison of slow and rapid readers. Sc. Soc, 4: Nov. 

25, 1916, 830-834. 

Comparison of the efficiency of slow and rapid readers. Sc. Soc, 6: 

Aug. 18. 1917, 203-204. 
Llewelyn, E. J. Reading in the Mount Vernon, Indiana, city schools. 

El. Sc. J., 17: Oct., 1916, 123-127. 
McGinnis, W. C. Reading. Journal of Education, 86: Sept. 6, 1917, 

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Monroe, W. S. A report on the use of the Kansas Silent Reading tests 

with over one hundred thousand children. J. Ed. Ps., 8: 1917. 
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The effects of efficiency tests in reading on a city school system. 

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Starch's English Reading Vocabulary Test. Madison, Wis. 

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Thorndike's Scale Alpha for Measuring and Understanding of Sen- 
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Improved Scale for Measuring and Understanding of Sentences: 

Scale Alpha 2, Parts 1 and 2. New York City. 

An improved scale for measuring ability in reading. Teh. Coll. 

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Whipple, G. M. and Curtis, Josephine, N. Preliminary investigation of 

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Spelling. 

Ashbaugh, E. J. Variability of children in spelling. Sch. Soc, 9: 93-98. 
Ayres, L. P. A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. New York 

City. 

A measuring scale for Ability in Spelling. Bulletin E139, New York 

City, pp. 56. 
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1914. pp. 48. 
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Tch. Coll. Con. Ed., 59: 1913, pp. 116. 
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Jones, W. F. Concrete Investigation of the Material of English Spellmg. 

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Kansas City, Mo. A report on words missed by elementary school 

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the Buckingham spelling tests. El. Sc. J., 16: June, 1916, 556-564. 
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Pryor, H. C. Spelling. Fourteenth Yb. Na. Soc, Pt. I,T915, 78-89. A 
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Studebaker, J. W. Results of an Investigation of Pupils' Ability to 
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Suzzalo. H. and Pearson, H. C. Comparative experimental teaching of 
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Thorndike, E. L. Means of measuring school achievements in spelling. 
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General Reports On the Use of Tests and Scales in Schools. 

Ballou, F. W. Work of the department of educational investigation and 
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Bobbitt, F. B. The work of the schools. Elementary schools. Report 
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Brown, G. A. Helps from the use of standard scales of attainment in 
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Chapman, J. C. and Feder, R. B. The effect of external incentives and 
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Haggerty, M. E. Elementary teachers and co-operative research. 
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Harlan, C. L. A comparison of the writing, spelling and arithmetic 
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1912, pp. 24. 

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Washington. A survey of educational institutions of the State of Wash- 
ington. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 26, 1916, pp. 228. 

Wisconsin. Preliminary Report on Conditions and Needs of Rural 
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Wyoming. Educational survey of Wyoming. By A. C. Monahan and 
Katherine M. Cook. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 29, 
1916, pp. 120. 




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